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Summary of Held's Models of Democracy
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A summary of the Model's of Democracy as set out in the book Models of Democracy by David Held
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1. Classical Democracy:Location and Nature:
The classical democracy was direct democracy and Athens was the abode of such a
democracy. There were, besides Athens, other Greek city states but among all the city
states Athens was most prominent and powerful. Direct democracy in Athens
developed in between 800-500 BCE (Before Christ Era). The Athenians were really
proud at the type of direct democracy that worked in their city-state.
What were the characteristics of Athenian democracy which was the symbol
of classical democracy?
(1) The classical democracy of Athens assumed the form of mass meeting. The
Athenians periodically met together to take stock of the situation of the state and
make policies and decisions.
(2) All the full-time public ofcials were chosen by the Athenians through lottery or
election.
(3) The arrangement was made in such a manner that every citizen could get (at least
once in his lifetime) the scope of participation in the ofces of the state.
(4) The Athenians never hesitated to participate in the afairs of state or to shoulder
the responsibility.
(5) Ofcial positions rotated among all the citizens and no special training was
required to run the administration.
(6) However, there were special training arrangements for military generals. In this
way the Athenian democracy—the representative of classical democracy—worked in
ancient Greece.
Ideals of Classical Democracy:
The ideals of classical democracy or Athenian democracy (these two terms may be
used interchangeably) can be stated in the following manner. The chief political ideals
were equality among all people (here the appropriate word is citizens), liberty and
respect for law and justice. The Athenians paid high and glowing tribute to justice and
law. What we now call rule of law, that system prevailed in ancient Greece and from
there it later on, ramifed in other parts of Europe.
Because of the prevalence of equality in Greek city-states all the citizens could get the
opportunity to participate in the policy/decision making process of the state.
Thucydides stated the ideals and aims of Athenian democracy in an address
attributed to Pericles’ funeral.
Thucydides (460-399 BC) claimed that Athenian democracy was unique in the sense
that its constitution, system of administration, institutions were not copied from other
systems. Rather the Athenian democracy was a model to be followed by others. Every
Athenian had equal right to be equally treated by law.
,Equality before law and equal treatment of law enabled justice to prevail in almost all
the spheres of society. Political life was free and open. All the citizens took active
interest in public of fairs and naturally they were not at all neglected. Every man
showed obedience to law and authority. Disputes were settled among themselves.
Aristotle’s Account of Democracy:
Aristotle’s The Politics (written between 335 and 323 BCE) provides a very beautiful
account of democracy. He said, “The foundation of democratic constitution is liberty.
People constantly make this statement implying that only in this constitution is there
any share in liberty at all. Every democracy has liberty for its aim. “Ruling and being
ruled in turn” is one element of liberty.
Then there is the democratic idea of justice as numerical equality, not equality based
on merit and when this idea of what is right prevails, the people must be sovereign
and whatever the majority decides that is fnal and that is justice………. The result is
that in democracies the poor have more sovereign power than the men of property.”
Live as you like” is another mark of a free man. “Living as you not like is the mark of
one enslaved”.
In this lengthy passage, Aristotle has delineated the basic features of democracy.
Needless to say that all these are today treated as valid. Liberty, justice and
sovereignty of the people or popular sovereignty are the basic pillars of democracy.
Aristotle gave priority to these three features.
He believed that only in democracy ruling and being ruled in turn take place. It is
absent in a state which is not democratic. The absence of the opportunity to rule is
the symbol of slavery. He also asserted that in his democracy equality is to be
interpreted numerically and it is not based on merit.
Principles of Democracy:
Aristotle has laid down certain fundamental principles of democracy. These may also
be called the basic features of democracy. We have already noted the conception of
democracy as it obtains in The Politics.
Following are the fundamental principles:
1. Ofcials of the city state will come through the elections and all citizens are eligible
for all posts or ofces.
2. A common rule will operate throughout the state and this rule is rule over each and
each by turn over all.
3. All the citizens are eligible for all posts excepting the posts which require special
qualifcations or experience.
4. No tenure of ofce dependent on the possession of property qualifcation.
5. The same man not to hold the same ofce twice. A man will be allowed to hold
ofce only for once in his lifetime. However, in the feld of warfare this principle will
not hold.
, 6. Aristotle prescribed short tenure of ofce.
7. Jury courts will be chosen from all the citizens and will adjudicate on all.
8. The Assembly (in Greek it was called Ecclesia) will have the sovereign authority
over anything except minor matters.
9. Payment services in assembly, in law courts and in the ofces, shall be regular.
10. Good birth, wealth and culture shall be the marks of the rule of the few. The
opposite shall be the rule of the many.
11. Perpetual tenure of ofce is not favoured by democracy.
Criticism:
Whatever may be the novelty or importance of classical democracy of Athens, the
critics: are not sympathetic to it.
Some of the criticisms are:
1) The Athenian democracy was limited only to a small fraction of population. The
male citizens above the age of 20 could take active part in the afairs of state. The
female citizens, irrespective of their qualifcation, had not the liberty or right to
participate in the policy-making afairs. So the classical democracy was the
democracy of the male citizens or patriarchs. The women had no civil or political
rights.
2) Large numbers of Athenians were also ineligible to participate in the proceedings of
the city-states. They were immigrants and slaves. In Athens large numbers of
immigrants lived and their contribution to Athenian culture, development etc. was not
negligible at all. The slaves in Athens constituted a major part of the whole population
and the Athenian economy and development rested on their labour. But they were not
permitted to take part in the ofces and other branches of the state.
3) The treatment meted out to slaves and immigrants does not prove the existence of
rights and equality in Athenian society.
4) All citizens did not enjoy equal status and all the opportunities were not open to all.
5) Many have called Athenian democracy as the tyranny of the minority.
6) Held has said that various aspects of the classical democracy can legitimately be
questioned.
2. Protective Democracy:
Definition:
The main theme of classical democracy was the participation of all citizens in the
processes of state and the Athenians (where the classical democracy fourished most
prominently) believed that they could achieve equality. So, the basis of classical
democracy was equality in respect of rights and privileges.
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