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Attitudes and Advertising Lecture Summary
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Attitudes and Advertising lectures. This course was given by Willem Sleeger during the major Economic Psychology at Tilburg University.
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Colleges Attitudes andAdvertising
By Lizzy Scheltus
, College 1 – Introduction
An attitude (nl: houding, hoe je over iets of iemand denkt, wat tevens gedrag
bepaald) is the categorization of a stimulus object along an evaluative dimension.
But there are multiple definitions. An attitude is like science: the goal is to figure
it out, we cannot just look at it. The same thing is with an attitude: You can
observe the stimulus and the evaluative response, but not the attitude that is in
between (example: see a cookie and want to have it). An attitude is a
hypothetical construct.
How can we measure attitudes?
- Direct measures: self-report, but can people answer the question? People
don’t know why they have certain attitudes.
- Indirect measures: IAT Test, but this is also questionable. Sure you are
slower but does this mean this is your attitude?
Do attitudes influence behavior? Yes, no, maybe? We are going to answer this
question and figure out how we can measure it carefully.
How can we change attitudes? We are going to look at persuasion, compliance/
conformity (agree at a request: would you like to buy this?), internal and external
influences (attention, memory, mood, culture, context, framing).
An introduction of advertising
Advertising is expensive, people spend like 542.55 billion dollars in 2016 on
advertisements. According the book there are several advertising functions, such
as: facilitating competition, funding public mass media (and other public
resources), creating jobs, communicating with consumer about products
and services, informing the individual consumer and persuading the
individual consumer.
Possible approaches on advertising are:
- The naïve approach: assumes that advertising must be effective, simply
because it is so ubiquitous and advertising expenditures are vast and
every increasing.
- The economic approach: tries to address the effects issue by correlating
advertising expenditures with aggregated changes in sales volume.
- The media approach: conceptualizes advertising effectiveness in term of
the number of individuals in a specific target population who have been
exposed to a messages.
- The creative approach: equates effectiveness with creativity.
- The psychological approach: the competent advertising man must
understand psychology the more he knows about it, the better. He must
learn that certain effects lead to certain reactions.
Sure you can do the economic approach, but this doesn’t tell you what costs the
most reach. You need knowledge prior to implement it. This can only be done
with psychology.
The psychological approach aims at relating specific advertising stimuli to
specific and individual consumer responses. Moreover, it seeks to articulate/find
1
,the intrapersonal, interpersonal or group-level psychological processes
that are responsible for the relationship between ad stimuli and consumer
responses. We prefer a scientific psychological approach supported by scientific
evidence.
Advertising related questions: Can we change attitudes towards products,
brands, companies? And if so, why? How do we measure the efficiency of
advertising techniques? How do the advertising techniques work? What are the
underlying psychological principles?
College 2 – Attitudes
Some look at attitudes as a tendency, some look at it as an association in
memory. Attitudes are (1) evaluative responses, (2) directed towards some
attitude objects and (3) based on three classes of information:
1. Cognitive: beliefs, knowledge, expectations, experience, what you know
about the object (for example ‘I know that the movie scores 97% on Rotten
Tomatoes’)
2. Affective: feelings, moods, emotions, experience, how you feel (for
example ‘I am amazed by the action scenes’)
3. Behaviour: action intentions, actual behavior, use own behavior to find
out if you like or dislike something (for example ‘I went to see I three times
in the cinema’)
Attitudes can be about pretty much everything. Think about how you feel about a
movie, a pretty woman, a chair or democracy. It does not have to be physical in
the world, it can be abstract as well.
Aspects of disagreement of attitudes
1. Should attitudes be defined as a predisposition to evaluate an attitude
object in a particular way or as the evaluative response itself? If you see an
attitude as predisposition than it is a general consistent attitude when it
comes to cognitive, affective, behavior, they all must be the same. So
three different classes of information, is it just the little respond or is it
something bigger than that?
2. Are attitudes stable or context dependent?
The unity of attitudes is doubtful. There is a weak correlation between what
people say is their attitude and what people actually do. There are explicit
attitudes, implicit attitudes and ambivalence.
Explicit and implicit attitudes
- Explicit attitudes are evaluations of which the individual is consciously
aware and that can be expressed using self-report measures (you are
aware of them; we ask what you think and you think you can answer this)
(deliberate, conscious, introspective, slow/cold, self-report).
- Implicit attitude are evaluations of which the individual is typically not
aware and that influence reactions or actions over which the individual has
little or no control (automatic, non-conscious, associative, fast/hot, indirect
measures).
2
,Many studies conducted on the topic of prejudice (nl: vooroordelen). Sometimes
explicit and implicit attitudes may not align due to social norms. Think about
someone who is racist, lie that he is not but see it in her/his behavior. This can
also happen in advertising. Some advertising is explicit, while other techniques
are more implicit. This can result in different attitudes. Think about Coca Cola
which you like because of the advertising (implicit) and dislike because of the
sugar (explicit).
The correlation between explicit an implicit measures is low. How to increase the
correlation? Hoffman et al (2005) found correlations between the IAT and explicit
self-report measures systematically increased as a function of:
- Increasing spontaneity of self-reports
- Increasing conceptual correspondence between measures (for example
ask affect-related questions: how do you feel about Starbucks. If we asked
how do you think about Starbucks, than there would pop up cognitive
responses)
3
, Attitude ambivalence
Attitude ambivalence is a state in which an individual gives an attitude object
equivalently strong positive or negative evaluation. This is not the same as
explicit and implicit. Instead, positivity and negativity are two distinct dimensions
(for example: Starbucks is expensive but good quality; there is a struggle toward
Starbucks, you are not sure what to think).
You can look at an attitude as if it is either positive or negative (one dimension).
The idea of ambivalence destroys this. So we make two dimensions of positive
and negative. Ambivalence is when you both feel ‘high’ positive and negative
about it. Indifference is when you both feel ‘low’ on positive and negative.
Goldstein and Stube (1994) measured peoples mood before and after telling
them an exam score. Meaning they could see that they either did poorly (failure)
or did well (success). PANAS stands for the positive and negative effect scale.
Results: when we did better, you only see an increase in positivity. So positivity
and negativity move independently from each other.
People have a need for consistency. How does that combine with ambivalence?
The answer is that its not a big deal. People feel okay with ambivalence as long
as they don’t need to make a decisions. You have reasons for eating the chips
and not eat the chips. If you feel ambivalence you have no idea what to do.
Dual attitudes
The findings of implicit/ explicit and ambivalence challenged the view of attitudes
as an unitary construct. A second disagreement is the file drawer model
(memory of positive attitudes) versus attitudes-as-constructions perspective
(attitudes are formed on the spot). There is evidence that political attitudes can
persist for many years or even a lifetime, but there is also evidence that attitudes
change with changing context.
Wilson and Kraft (1993) did an experiment about attitudes towards a relationship.
In a pretest they measured the attitude towards relationship (degree of
happiness, feeling about future of relationship). They did a control condition in
which you give reasons for choosing your major and an experimental condition in
which you give reasons for why you think your relationship is going the way it is.
In the posttest they measured the attitude towards the relationship again.
Results: when you recap your relationship status (experimental condition) you
end up revealing to yourself a different attitude towards the relationship. The
smaller correlation indicates more attitude change, caused by giving reasons.
So, attitudes are sometimes unstable and sometimes not. How to explain this?
What’s the moderator (it moderates whether the effect exist or not, for example
the variable that makes an attitude stable or less stable)? The moderator is
attitude strength. There are four attributes:
1. Higher stability
2. Greater impact on behavior
3. Greater influence on information processing (it effects where people pay
attention to)
4. Greater resistance to persuasion
4
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