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Summary A Level Edexcel Learning Theories Psychology Notes (with Essay Plans)
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A Level Edexcel Learning Theories Psychology Notes (with Essay Plans), colour coded with AO1, AO2, AO3
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LEARNING THEORIES NOTES(4.1.1) Classic Conditioning (Pavlov)
AO1: Classic conditioning takes place when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together- an
unconditioned, not learned, stimulus (UCS) and a new neutral stimulus (NS). The NS
eventually produces the same response as that produced by the UCS.
E.g. learning to salivate in response to a chocolate wrapper. The wrapper is a NS until paired
with chocolate, an UCS. After pairing, the wrapper becomes a CS and elicits a CR (salivation)
AO3 - Research evidence - A strength of classical conditioning is that it is supported by
many studies conducted on both humans and animals. Ivan Pavlov demonstrated classical
conditioning of salivation responses in his studies of dogs (see next spread)
AO3 - Application to aversion therapy. Classical conditioning has therapeutic
applications such as systematic desensitization and flooding. Another example of a therapy
based on classical conditioning is aversion therapy. This is used, for example, to treat people
who have an unwanted behaviour such as experiencing sexual arousal to a photograph of a
young child. A painful electric shock (UCS) is paired with the child’s photograph (NS). The
shock produces an UCR response of discomfort. The NS will become a CS and also produce a
sensation of discomfort. This shows that classical conditioning is useful to psychologists as
well as being of theoretical interest.
AO1 - Extinction: when behaviour that has been conditioned is removed . When a CS
is experienced without the UCS over period of time, the CR is extinguished i.e. the CS
ceases to elicit the CR
AO3 - An incomplete explanation of learning - it can only explain how a limited range of
behaviours can be acquired. It cannot account for more complex chains of learned behaviour.
For example, classical conditioning could explain how we come to fear dogs but not the
maintenance of this fear over time or the behaviours we learn in order to avoid encountering
dogs. Therefore, classical conditioning is only a partial explanation for learning of behaviour.
AO1 - Spontaneous Recovery: If the CS (the bell) is once again paired with the UCS
(food), following extinction, then the behaviour will quickly be learned again.
Reponses may be weaker than the original
AO1 - Stimulus Generalisation: The stimulus triggering a reaction (CS does not have
to be the exact one involved in the process of learning, but the more similar the
stimulus is, the more likely it will produced a conditioned response
AO3 – Lil Albert
Discrimination: Over a period of time, learning only occurs in response to a specific stimulus
, (4.1.2) Pavlov (1927) experiment with salivation in dogs
AO1: Aim: In particular Pavlov was interested in:
o Explaining the role of conditioned reflexes in the eating behaviour of dogs.
o Exploring how salivation becomes associated with new stimuli apparently
unrelated to food and the properties of this association.
AO1: Collected saliva from the salivary glands of an immobilized dog, done in a laboratory,
so this production could be easily observed and measured either by volume or number of
drops in a cannula. Salivation was the dependent variable, and the experiment took place in
a soundproof chamber in order to minimize the effects of extraneous variables
AO3: highly scientific (internal validity), reduced the impact of extraneous variables and
therefore enhanced the internal validity of the study, Pavlov’s studies took place within a
soundproof chamber to reduce the possibility of external sounds distracting the dogs or
providing additional stimuli, The collection of saliva externally in a cannula helped prevent
any loss of saliva and therefore invalid measurement of salivation. Neutral stimuli were
carefully chosen and tested to ensure they did not already elicit a salivation response.These
controls make it more likely that salivation in response to the conditioned stimulus was due
to conditioning rather than to extraneous variables.
AO1: He established a baseline by measuring salivation in response to the neutral stimulus,
e.g. a metronome or buzzer. Then he would pair the NS with the unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) of food, usually around 20 times. Pavlov varied the presentation, so that the NS was
presented before (forward conditioning) or after the UCS (backward conditioning). Further
variations in the procedure were used to investigate extinction and spontaneous recovery of
salivation, for example the NS (e.g. metronome), now a conditioned stimulus was presented
several times without the UCS which produced extinction.
AO3: Generalisability to humans, It is always unclear how well the findings of animal
studies will generalise to humans because humans have structurally different brains from
other species, and may therefore respond differently. In particular humans have a larger
cerebral cortex than other species and this permits greater complex cognitive processing,
including conscious choice. This is important because Pavlov (and others) believed his
findings would generalise to humans and that may not be entirely true.
AO1: Findings: An NS, such as the sound of a metronome or bell, did not initially elicit a
salivation response, whereas the UCS of food elicited immediate salivation. After forward
pairings of NS and UCS, the NS typically did elicit salivation after it was presented for a few
seconds. In one trial Pavlov recorded that salivation commenced nine seconds after the
metronome sound, with 45 drops of saliva being collected. No salivation was recorded in
response to the NS in backwards pairing. Pavlov noted that the salivation reflex only became
associated with an NS if the dog was alert and undistracted. Extinction of salivation could be
seen as the salivary volume declined after repeated presentation of the CS without the UCS.
The salivary response to the CS spontaneously recovered on some occasions
AO3 - Application to eating problems - Pavlov’s study has clinical applications in
helping understand problem behaviours. Obesity can be partially understood in terms of
conditioned responses very much like those displayed by Pavlov’s dogs. For example, Anita
Jansen et al. (2003) suggest that overweight children have acquired very strong associations
between cues that predict the arrival of food and the salivation response. Overeating follows
exposure to these cues. This application of Pavlov’s research demonstrates its significance in
developing therapies such as systematic desensitization
, 4.1.3 Operant Conditioning
AO1: Operant Conditioning is learning through the consequences of actions
AO3: Incomplete explanation of how we acquire behaviours when there is no reinforcement.
Does not account for human motivation, not understanding properties of reinforcement,
does not provide complete account. Humans motivated by range of factors, also everyday
activities. This means that there is a firm evidence base supporting the properties of partial
reinforcement in both human and non-human animal learning.
AO1: Reinforced: Pleasant consequences and behaviour is strengthened i.e., more likely to
be repeated
Positive Reinforcement: Rewarding the subject by adding something that it likes
e.g., giving child chocolate for cleaning room
Negative Reinforcement: Rewarding subject by removing/adding some aversive
stimulus e.g., letting a child off from their homework if they do well in a test
AO3 - Research evidence on animals and humans-Skinner showed how positive
reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever
on the side, and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the lever.
Immediately it did so that a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever.
AO1: Punished: Unpleasant consequences and behaviour is weakened i.e., less likely to be
repeated
Positive punishment: Punishing the subject by adding an aversive stimulant e.g.
giving a child an extra hour of homework of they do something wrong
Negative punishment: Punishing the subject by removing a liked stimulus e.g.,
confiscating a phone
AO3 - It only explains one aspect of how we might learn and could be too simplistic. The
theory also focuses entirely on behaviours and ignores cognitions. Cognitions are thought-
processes and include things like personality, willpower and motivation. Sigmund
Freud argued that a lot of self-destructive behaviour comes from hidden thought-processes
in the unconscious mind and are not learned and cannot be un-learned so easily.
AO1: TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT:
Primary Reinforcement – stimuli which are naturally reinforcing because they
satisfy a need.
Secondary Reinforcement – stimuli which are reinforcing through their
association with the primary reinforcer (i.e., does not directly satisfy a need but may
have the means to do so)
Token Economy Programme (TEP): system in which targeted behaviors are
reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards
(primary reinforcers)
AO3 - Application to society, schools and education
o Behaviour modification lends itself well to forms of treatment.
o Behaviour modification systems have been used to treat a range of mental
health problems, ranging from schizophrenia to autism spectrum disorder
(ASD). For example, Lovaas therapy involves intensive reinforcement
including shaping, in order to normalize some aspects of behavior in children
with ASD.
o This shows that behavior modification is of practical benefit to clients.
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