A summary of all mandatory articles for Emotion and Cognition, Leiden University bachelor 2018/2019
Note (added March, 2021): I received a comment that the summary does not contain all articles that are mandatory in the 2020/2021 course. So please beware that this summary is not complete!
Thi...
Bodily maps of emotions (Nummenmaa et al., 2014)
Emotions can be experienced directly in the body. Emotion systems have a survival role: they
help us to adjust to the environment by changing the activation of the cardiovascular, skeletomuscular,
neuroendocrine, and autonomic nervous system (ANS). These changes in the body trigger subjective
emotional feelings. The study by Nummenmaa et al. aims to develop maps of bodily sensations
associated with different emotions. The researchers used a computer-based, topographical self-report
method. Participants were asked to color the regions of the body that they felt as having increased or
decreased activity. Different emotions were associated with statistically different bodily sensation
maps (BSMs). This may support the categorical experience of different emotions.
The researchers ran 5 experiments:
Experiment 1
Six ‘basic’, seven non-basic (more complex) emotions and a neutral state were shown. Each of
the basic emotions and the neutral state were classified against all of the other emotions with a mean
accuracy of 72%. When all emotions were classified from each other, the mean accuracy was 38%. The
positive emotions (happiness, love, pride) formed a cluster. The negative emotions could be divided
into four clusters (anger & fear; anxiety & shame; sadness & depression; and disgust, contempt, & envy).
The researchers controlled for linguistic confounds of figurative speech associated with
emotions (such as ‘heartache’). When comparing the language of the participants (Finnish) to another
family of languages (Swedish), the same BSMs were found. There was also a control experiment or
different cultural backgrounds (comparing the Finnish with Taiwanese individuals), and again the
BSMs associated with the basic emotions were similar, supporting the cultural universality hypothesis.
Experiment 2 and 3
It might be the case that participants were using stereotypes of bodily responses to color the
body maps in experiment 1. To control for this, emotions were directly induced in the participants by
guided mental imagery (by reading short stories) and by viewing movies. The names of the emotions
were not mentioned to avoid stereotypes. BSMs were similar to those from experiment 1.
Experiment 4
Models of embodied emotion suggest that people understand others’ emotions by simulating
them in their own bodies. This idea was tested by showing pictures of six facial expressions to the
participants. The researchers didn’t name the emotions that were shown. The participants had to color
BSMs for the person shown in the pictures. Again, statistically separable BSMs were observed. This
experiment ruled out high-level cognitive inferences and stereotypes.
Experiment 5
Independent participants were presented with the BSMs of each basic emotion from experiment
1 and were asked to identify the emotions. Their mean accuracy was 46%, accuracy for anger, disgust,
happiness, sadness, surprise and the neutral state were higher, whereas the accuracy for fear (8%) did
not exceed the chance level.
Conclusions
The BSMs for experiments 1-4 for the six basic emotions + the neutral state were consistent.
There are distinct BSMs for both basic and complex emotions. Bodily sensations are represented in a
categorical manner in the body. These bodily sensations correspond well with the major changes in
physiological functions associated with the different emotions. Most basic emotions were associated
with sensations of elevated activity in the upper chest area (breathing, heart rate). Sensations in the head
were found in all emotions (physiological changes in the facial area and the triggering of the mind).
Sensations in the upper limbs were seen most in approach-oriented emotions (anger and happiness),
whereas sensations of decreased limb activity were seen in sadness. Sensations in the digestive system
and around the throat were mainly found in disgust. Happiness was associated with increased activity
all over the body. Non-basic emotions showed overall smaller bodily sensations.
BSMs likely reflect universal sensation patterns triggered by activation of the emotion system,
rather than culturally specific conceptual predictions and associations. This might point to a biological
, basis for these sensations. Reproduction of physiological states (e.g. breathing patterns or facial
expressions) can induce subjective feelings of the corresponding emotion. Voluntary production of facial
expressions of emotions leads to changes in physiological parameters (e.g. heart rate, muscle tension).
However, emotional feelings are only modestly associated with specific changes in heart rate or skin
conductance and physiological data have not revealed consistent emotion-specific patterns of bodily
activation. This study cannot establish a direct link between the BSMs and an underlying physiological
activation pattern. However, topographical changes in emotion-triggered sensations in the body could
provide a novel biomarker for emotional disorders.
Perspectives from affective science on understanding
the nature of emotion (Fox, 2018)
For generations, emotions (also called ‘passions’) were seen as the opposite of ‘reason’. People
thought that emotions undermined a rational way of thinking.
Affective neuroscience is the study of emotions, moods, and feelings and how they are
embodied within the brain. There is little consensus within the field of affective science as to the
fundamental nature of emotion. Two broad perspectives can be identified:
• ‘Natural-kind’ view of emotion: emphasizes the role that emotions play in influencing our
behavior and cognitions. Emotions help to signal our deepest motivations and priorities.
Emotions are shaped by social situations and emotions also shape the social situations.
• ‘Conceptual construction’ view of emotion: emphasizes that emotions are emotions are primarily
social constructions that emerge from a dynamic brain organization alongside a highly
developed conceptual system. This conceptual system helps with the interpretation of incoming
sensory information. Emotions are not reactions to sensory events, but rather they are
conceptual constructions of the world.
It is difficult to understand emotions. There are three broad issues that contribute to this:
1. Disagreements as to how emotion should be defined.
2. Many different levels of analyses and many different methodologies → difficult to
integrate/combine findings.
3. Different assumptions about the nature of emotions (natural-kind vs conceptual perspective)
color the perception and interpretation of scientific data.
Defining ‘emotion’
Term Typical duration Common elicitor Function
Emotions Seconds to minutes Specific object or To bias actions
situation
Moods Hours, days, weeks General internal and To bias cognition
external environment
Feelings Variable, but Activation of internal To bring to conscious
probably relatively environment awareness
short-term
Emotion concept Variable, but General environment To inform rational
probably very long- and semantic system discussion and
term decision-making
It is important to separate ‘emotions’ and ‘moods’ from the conscious experience (feelings) of these
affective states. The term ‘affect’ is used to refer to responses related to emotions, moods, and the
regulation of these states. ‘Concepts of emotion’ refers to the ability to think about emotions without
necessarily experiencing them at that time.
LeDoux (2012) argues that a broader framework helps researchers to investigate affective
processes without having to worry about an exact definition of emotion. However, a broader framework
can also reduce the explanatory power of the concept of emotion to understand behavior.
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