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Chapter 1: Applications and possessed by an individual. There are two
cautions that should be taken into notice:
Consequences of 1. Test scores always reflect some degree of
Psychological Testing measurement error. This can be defined in
the formula X = T + e in which X is the
observed score, T is the true score, and e
Topic 1A: the Nature and Uses of is the error score. The best is to keep e as
Psychological Testing small as possible.
2. The second caution is that test consumers
must be wary of reifying the characteristic
The Consequences of Testing being measured. Test results do not
A psychometrician is a specialist in represent a thing with physical reality, but
psychology or education who develops and an abstraction instead, that has been
evaluates psychological tests. proven useful in predicting behaviours.
Definition of a Test 4) A psychological test must also possess
A test is a standardized procedure for norms or standards. To be able to interpret
sampling behaviour and describing it with individual scores based on scores of others,
categories or scores. In addition, most tests norms are needed - a summary of test results
have norms or standards by which the results for a large and representative group of
can be used to predict other, more important subjects. The selection and testing of the
behaviours. standardization sample is crucial to the
usefulness of a test. Norms are, of course,
Tests can vary enormously in their formats and only used for norm-referenced tests. Norms
applications, but most tests process these do not only establish an average performance
defining features: but also serve to indicate the frequency with
1. Standardized procedure which different high and low scores are
2. behaviour sample obtained.
3. scores or categories
4. norms or standards 5) Finally, tests are not ends in themselves.
5. prediction of non-test behaviour Mostly, their ultimate purpose is to predict
additional behaviours, other than those
These features are especially relevant to directly sampled by the test.
norm-referenced tests - tests that use a well-
defined population of persons for their Further Distinctions in Testing
interpretive framework. In contrast to a norm-referenced test,
criterion referenced tests help to determine
1) A standardized procedure is an essential where the examinee stands with respect to
feature of any psychological tests. A test is very tightly defined educational objectives.
considered standardized if the procedures for
administering it are uniform from one examiner Another important distinction to make is the
and setting to another. Standardization of the one between testing and assessment.
test partly depends on the competence of the Assessment refers to the appraising or
examiner, and partly on how well the estimating of magnitude of one or more
directions are formulated. attributes in a person. A test only represents
one source of information used in the
2) A psychological test is a limited sample of assessment process. In assessment, the
behaviour. The test items need not resemble examiner must compare and combine data
the behaviours that the test is attempting to from different sources. This is not the case
predict. The essential characteristic of a good with a test.
test is that it permits the examiner to predict
other behaviours - not that it mirrors the to-be
predicted behaviours.
3) A psychological test must also permit the
derivation of scores or categories. Tests
measure individual differences in traits or
characteristics. The purpose of the testing is
to estimate the amount of the trait or quality
, Types of Tests suspected brain dysfunction. These tests
Broadly speaking, there are two types of tests: are used to make inferences about the
group tests vs. individual tests. Group tests locus, extent and consequences of brain
are largely pencil-and-paper measure suitable damage.
to the testing of large groups of persons at the
same time. Individual tests are instruments Uses of Testing
that by their design and purpose must be Simple decision making is not the only
administered one on one. An important function of psychological testing. It is
advantage of individual testing is that the convenient to distinguish five uses of tests:
examiner can perceive how motivated the 1. Classification
subject is and assess the relevance of other 2. Diagnosis and treatment planning
factors, such as test anxiety, on the test 3. Self-knowledge
results. 4. program evaluation
research.
For convenience, we can sort tests into eight
categories. Each of the categories contains 1) The term classification encompasses a
norm-referenced, criterion-referenced, variety of procedures that share common
individual and group tests. purpose of assigning a person to one
category rather than another. We distinguish
1. Intelligence tests: sample a wide variety between placement, screening, certification
of proficiencies deemed important in our and selection.
culture. This test yields an overall • Placement is the sorting of persons into
summary score based on results from a different programs appropriate to their
heterogenous sample of items. needs or skills.
2. Aptitude tests: measure one or more • Screening refers to quick and simple tests
clearly-defined and relatively homogenous or procedures to identify persons who might
segments of ability. There are two sorts of have special characteristics or needs.
aptitude tests, namely single tests and Screening tests might result in
multiple aptitude test batteries. Aptitude misclassifications, and for this reason,
tests are often used to predict success in examiners are advised to do follow-up
one occupation, training course, or testing with additional instruments before
educational endeavor, the most common making important decisions.
one being the SAT for predicting academic • The term certification and selection both
success. have a pass/fail quality. Selection is similar
3. Achievement tests: measure a person’s to certification in that it confers privileges
degree of learning, or accomplishment in a such as the opportunity to attend university.
subject’s matter. The difference between
aptitude tests and achievement tests is 2) Another use of psychological tests is for
based on the use rather than the content. diagnoses and treatment planning. Diagnosis
Sometimes a test may serve both consists of two intertwined tasks: determining
purposes. the nature and source of abnormal behaviour
4. Creativity tests: assess a subject’s ability and classifying the behavior pattern within an
to produce novel and original solutions of accepted diagnostic system. Diagnoses is
fuzzy problems or the production of artistic often a precursor of treatment.
works. Diagnosis should be more than mere
5. Personality tests: measure the traits, classification, and should convey information -
qualities or behaviors that determine a about strengths, weaknesses, etiology, and
person’s individuality; this information best choices for remediation/treatment.
helps predict future behaviour.
6. Interest inventories: measure an 3) Psychological tests can supply a potent
individual’s preference for certain activities source of self-knowledge, possibly changing
or topics and thereby help determine people’s lives.
occupational choice.
7. Behavioral procedures: assess the ante 4) Another use for psychological tests is the
cements and consequences of behaviour. systematic evaluation of educational and
These approaches tend to be highly social programs.
interwoven with treatment approaches.
8. Neuropsychological tests: used int eh
assessment of persons with known or
, Factors Influencing the Soundness of • Motor: motor problems can patients to
Testing perform slower, leading them to score lower
Psychological testing is a dynamic process on times aspects of a test.
influenced by many factors, such as the
manner of administration, the characteristics For all these disabilities one should notice that
of the tester, the context of the testing, the they are harder to identify in children, as these
motivation and experience of the examinee, are hard informants of their own disabilities.
and the method of scoring.
Desirable Procedures of Group Testing
Conducting a group test requires as much
Standardized Procedures in Test finesse as administering an individual test.
Administration There are numerous ways in which careless
The interpretation of a psychological test isms administration and scoring can impair group
reliable when the measurements are obtained test results, causing bias for the entire group
under standardized conditions. Even though or affecting only certain individuals.
standardized testing procedures are normally • The greatest single source of error in group
essential, there are instances in which test administration is incorrect timing of
flexibility in procedures is desirable or even tests that require a time limit. This renders
necessary. Such deviations should be the norms completely invalid and lowers or
reasoned and deliberate. Minor adjustments in heightens she scores for most subjects of
procedures that heed the spirit in which a test the group.
was developed occur on a regular basis and • A second source of error is lack of clarity in
are no cause for alarm. However, considerable the direction to the examinees. Examiners
clinical experience is needed to determine must read out the instructions, but not
whether an adjustment in procedure is minor paraphrase them, Where allowed by the
os so substantial that existing norms no manual, the instructor can give clarification if
longer apply. The test can in latter case only needed.
be used to help formulate clinical judgements. • Noise is another factor that must be
controlled for in group testing. Noise causes
Desirable Procedures of Test a decrease in performance, especially for
Administration tasks of high complexity.
An essential component of individual testing is • Another source of error in the administration
that examiners must be intimately familiar with of a group test is failure to explain when and
the materials and directions before if examinees should guess. Examiners
administration begins. should never give supplementary advice on
guessing. Most test developers incorporate
Sensitivity to Disabilities rate a correction for guessing based one
Another important ingredient of valid test stablished principles of probability. The
administration is sensitivity to disabilities in scoring correction outlined in the preceding
the examinee. Indeed, impairments in hearing, paragraph pertains only to wild, uneducated
vision, speech, and motor control may guesses.
seriously distort test results.
Influence of the Examiner
Persons with disabilities may require
specialized tests for valid assessment. The Importance of Rapport
• Hearing: indications of possible hearing Test publishers urge examiners to establish
difficulty include lack of normal response to rapport - a comfortable, warm atmosphere
sound, inattentiveness, difficulty following that serves to motivate examinees and elicit
oral instructions, focus on speaker’s lips and cooperation. A tester who fails to establish
poor articulation. In case of mild problems, rapport may cause a subject to react with
the speaker should talk louder and slower. anxiety, passive-aggressive noncooperation,
• Vision: in contrast to patients with hearing or open hostility.
problems, subjects with visual disabilities
generally attend well to verbally presented Examiner Sex, Experience, and Race
test materials. Most studies find that sex, experience, and
• Speech: the verbal responses of subjects race of the examiner make little, if any,
with speech impairment are difficult to difference. One study did show, though, that
decipher. mistrustful African Americans do poorly when
, tested by white examiners, but even this study
is disputed.
Background and Motivation of the
Examinee
Test Anxiety
Test anxiety refers to those
phenomenological, physiological, and
behavioral responses that accompany
concern about possible failure on a test.
Indeed, research has shown that anxiety is
negatively correlated with school
achievement, aptitude test scores and
measures of intelligence. Research has
suggested that students develop test anxiety
because of a history of performing poorly on
tests. These students would thus even
perform poorly without their anxiety. Other
studies have shown that anxiety does
decrease test scores strongly, and thus might
be both cause and effect of poor test
performance. Tests with time limits are
especially performed poor on by students with
test anxiety.
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