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Literature Review Espionage and war in cyberspace
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Literature ReviewWhat are the implications of bulk data collection in cyberspace by
intelligence agencies in the 21st Century?
Literature Review
Espionage and War in Cyberspace
Master Crisis and Security Management
23th November 2023
Student number: s4015576
Word Count: 1637
, INTRODUCTION
The rapid development of technology and the internet in recent decades has brought the world
significant changes. These changes consisted of both positive developments such as improved
governmental services and negative developments like government surveillance and bulk data
collection by intelligence agencies. In 2013, Edward Snowden, a former NSA contractor,
disclosed classified documents exposing worldwide surveillance programs of multiple
intelligence agencies. (Johnson et al., 2014, p. 795). These revelations triggered worldwide
debates about privacy, civil liberties, and the fragile balance between national security and
individual rights. This literature review examines the following research question: what are
the implications of bulk data collection in cyberspace by intelligence agencies in the 21st
century? This literature review will research the following three implications of bulk data
collection (BDC): legal and privacy implications, national security, and ethical dimensions.
Legal and Privacy Implications
The implications of BDC by intelligence agencies have initiated intense debates on legal and
privacy dimensions. In Johnson et al. (2014), Wark argues that the Snowden leaks have led to
a new and justifiable discussion of privacy concerns. However, Richard and Moran argue in
Johson et al. that the Snowden leaks unveiled a "crisis of secrecy" rather than a privacy
decline, shifting focus to government transparency. Fidler and Cate (2015) highlight the
significant consequences for privacy resulting from NSA actions. The GCHQ uses the so-
called ‘data vacuum cleaner’ to create a profile of all internet users in the world and to keep
track of how citizens surf and internet for data analysis, to find possible suspects, all these
surveillance programs lack oversight (Brinkhoff, 2017, p. 63-64). The method of data
collection is alarming as citizens' information is exchanged for public services, leaving an
electronic footprint (Reddick et al., 2015, p. 130). Fidler and Cate extend concerns to the
limited effectiveness of automated data analysis in countering terrorism.
Bauman et al. (2014) argue that the U.S. privacy legislation is unworkable and fragmented.
NSA's collection of metadata without authorized investigations ignores privacy rights. The
U.S. government's access to private-sector data led to opposition from foreign entities and
governments, resulting in the blocking of the export of personal data. NSA’s actions raised
concerns about the decline of personal privacy, leading to the need for stricter privacy laws
and effective supervision.
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