WEEK 1
Allan - In the beginning there was modernity
The article explores the concept of modernity, tracing its origins back to the 17th century and highlighting significant social
changes associated with it. These changes include the movement of populations to urban areas, a high division of labor,
commodification, and rational markets, widespread bureaucracy, and the integration of diverse identities under national
identities.
Key historical moments contributing to the emergence of modernity include the Renaissance, Enlightenment, Reformation,
American and French Revolutions, and the Industrial Revolution. Modernity emphasizes understanding the world
empirically, relying on personal observation, evidence gathering, and the use of the five senses. The idea of progress,
integral to modernity, is linked with positivism, which asserts that scientific knowledge can uncover empirical laws
governing the universe. The accumulation of scientific knowledge occurs through testing theories and discarding untenable
parts.
Modernity's projects focus on technical and social progress. The technical project is primarily the domain of science
(empirics, universal laws, progress through interventions, predictable effects, control over nature and society), while the
social project involves concepts like democracy and human rights (promoting stability, institutions enabling the
development of knowledge, knowledge-based progress). Modern democracy, originating from the American and French
Revolutions, is founded on the principle of natural human rights and the belief that government should rule by the consent of
the governed.
Giddens - The politics of climate change
The article discusses the concept of sustainable development, which emerged prominently after the 1992 UN Rio Earth
Summit. Sustainable development is defined as “seeking lasting solutions to environmental problems, considering the
medium and long term, and developing strategies that extend over those time scales”.
Environmental sustainability is broken down into five elements:
1. The condition of ecological systems (air, soil, water).
2. The stresses these systems face, including pollution levels.
3. The impact of these stresses on human society, such as food availability and disease exposure.
4. The social and institutional capacity to cope with environmental hazards.
5. The ability to create stewardship of global public goods, particularly the atmosphere.
The term development is examined, which can denote economic growth or the processes that lift people out of poverty.
There's a distinction between “developed” and “developing” countries, with the latter facing a development imperative to
improve their economic conditions.
The concept of over-development is introduced, suggesting that while economic growth can bring benefits, it also leads to
problems associated with affluence. It's argued that economic growth should not be pursued without considering its wider
consequences.
The article critiques GDP as a measure of welfare, advocating for broader measures like the Genuine Progress Indicator
(GPI), the Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW), and the Sustainable Society Index (SSI). These measures take
into account factors like income distribution, household work, volunteer work, crime, and pollution, providing a more
comprehensive view of societal well-being. However, the reluctance of countries to adopt these measures more prominently
is attributed to the fact that they often portray economic development in a less favorable light than GDP alone.
Lintsen - Long-term development in the Netherlands
The article provides a comprehensive overview of the development of well-being and sustainability in the Netherlands
from 1850 to 2010, focusing on the eradication of extreme poverty and its trade-offs, as well as the evolving relationship
between economic growth and environmental challenges.
Around 1850: despite being among the richest countries globally, the Netherlands faced significant poverty, with hundreds
of thousands living in dire conditions and lacking basic necessities. King William I's efforts to modernize the economy
partially succeeded, notably through colonial policies utilizing cheap labor from the Dutch East Indies. The country's wealth
relied on natural capital, including its geographical advantages and agricultural productivity, but also faced vulnerabilities
such as water management challenges and public health issues due to organic waste.
,The liberalization of international trade, along with the new Constitution of 1848 ushered in new opportunities and a more
dynamic civil society (made of the rise of young generations of professional engineers and architects). Economic growth
became increasingly reliant on fossil fuel resources, leading to mechanization in agriculture and changes in food production
and consumption patterns. However, this transition towards a linear economy brought environmental concerns, including the
depletion of resources and pollution.
Around 1900: there was a redefinition of poverty, encompassing not only material deprivation but also standards of living
and social values. Social legislation aimed to improve housing conditions, regulate labor practices, and promote bourgeois
values, reflecting a broader understanding of poverty beyond mere economic indicators.
Between 1900 and 1960: the era of significant social progress, with debates and reforms addressing issues such as housing,
working conditions, and social inequality. The period saw a decline in income inequality and increased redistribution of
societal incomes through government subsidies and collective measures. Economic growth was accompanied by the
expansion of mass production and consumption, leading to changes in lifestyle and consumption patterns.
Around 1960: there was a balance between well-being and economic growth, with poverty rates decreasing alongside
economic prosperity. However, the article notes that this balance began to shift in the subsequent decades.
From 1960 to 2015: concerns emerged regarding environmental sustainability and social inequality. Mass unemployment,
wage moderation, and increased social inequality became significant challenges. Moreover, the Netherlands faced issues
related to energy consumption, climate change, and shortage of natural resources. The corporatist structure of
governance in the Netherlands, while initially beneficial for social progress, also hindered efforts towards sustainability by
impeding interventions in existing institutions. Despite attempts to address sustainability issues, such as integrating
ecological values into policies, progress was limited. The emergence of the European Union, economic liberalization, and
the decline of corporatist organizations further complicated the situation.
Around 2015: the Netherlands continued to grapple with sustainability challenges, including high fossil fuel consumption,
greenhouse gas emissions, and non-compliance with EU environmental norms. Additionally, social inequality and
uncertainty about the future contributed to a welfare paradox, where despite high levels of objective well-being, satisfaction
with life declined for some segments of society. The Dutch version of measuring sustainability is the so-called Brede
Welvaart Monitor, which measures well-being and sustainability beyond GDP.
Sorensen - The theory of second modernity
The article introduces Ulrich Beck's theory of second modernity, which addresses the conceptual challenge of defining the
postmodern era that sociology has grappled with since the 1970s. Beck's theory offers a reconciliation between the
perspectives of “modernists” and “postmodernists”. Beck argues that within modernity itself, breaks and shifts are leading to
a transition from what he terms “first modernity” to “second modernity”.
First and second modernity: rooted in the Enlightenment ideals of reason, freedom, and scientific progress, emerged
alongside industrialization in the 18th and 19th centuries. First modernity is characterized by industrial society, and the
emerging second modernity, he labels the “risk society”.
Six key premises of the first modern society:
1. Society is structured around the nation-state, with territorial boundaries defining social organization;
2. There is programmatic individualization, where social positions are largely predetermined but freed from
traditional inequalities;
3. Society is seen as an employment society, where status and security stem from participation in the economy;
4. Nature is viewed as separate from society;
5. Rationality is scientifically defined and used to exert control over nature;
6. There's functional differentiation, where societal functions become increasingly specialized.
Five key challenges that have undermined the structures of first modernity and led to the emergence of second modernity:
1. Globalization: the blurring of boundaries between local and global affairs and the erosion of national borders have
reshaped societal dynamics. This has significant implications for the relationship between domestic and foreign
affairs;
2. Intensified individualization: traditional collective life patterns have dissolved, giving rise to new and
unprecedented social forms. This trend toward individualization has transformed social structures and norms;
, 3. Global environmental crisis: increasing awareness and acknowledgment of global ecological issues have made
environmental concerns a political priority. This crisis has underscored the interconnectedness of global systems
and the need for collective action;
4. Gender revolution: the deconstruction of traditional gender roles has altered internal family dynamics, challenging
traditional notions of masculinity and femininity and reshaping family structures and social norms;
5. Full-time gainful employment: the scarcity of full-time employment opportunities has led to underemployment and
precarious work arrangements. This shift marks a departure from the traditional model of industrial employment.
Second modernity: characterized by a pervasive sense of insecurity stemming from global environmental risks, the
dissolution of traditional community structures, employment uncertainties, and the impacts of globalization on nation-states'
authority.
Reflexive modernization: these challenges are unintended consequences of the initial industrial modernization process of
the first modernity. Reflexive modernization represents the modernization of modernity itself, as society grapples with the
unforeseen and undesired effects of its earlier development. It reflects a phase where modernity encounters and reacts to its
unintended consequences, reshaping societal structures and dynamics. Beck suggests that the transition to second modernity
is not the result of deliberate actions by specific actors, but rather a complex and multifaceted process driven by the
unintended consequences of previous modernization efforts.
Held - Models of Democracy
The article delves into Max Weber's perspective on parliamentary government, highlighting its importance and evolution
in modern political systems.
Weber outlined several reasons why parliamentary government is vital:
1. It maintains openness in government, allowing for the expression of competing ideas and interests;
2. The nature of debate within parliament serves as a testing ground for aspiring leaders, who must reach a high
standard of persuasion;
3. Parliament provides space for negotiation, making policy alternatives visible and facilitating compromise.
Weber’s critique of the classic liberal conception of parliament: the extension of the franchise and the rise of party politics
have fundamentally altered its dynamics. With the mass franchise, political parties have become central to political business,
leading to the emergence of career politicians. The spread of the franchise necessitated the formation of political associations
to mobilize the electorate, transforming parties into electoral machines focused on winning elections.
Weber described modern representative democracy as plebiscitary leadership democracy, where routine elections resemble
direct votes of confidence in government leaders. He presented a restrictive model of democracy, skeptical of expanding
political participation beyond electoral processes. While acknowledging the role of the electorate in dismissing ineffective
leaders, Weber challenged traditional liberal ideas and cautioned against the idealistic notion of creating self-governing
societies free from bureaucracy.
, Evans - Elitism
The article explores the concept of elitism and its implications for understanding social power and governance. It contrasts
classical elitism, associated with theorists like Pareto, Mosca, and Michels, with democratic elitism, primarily linked to Max
Weber and Schumpeter.
Classical elitism: posits that the nature and goals of a society are determined by its elite class, who wield concentrated social
power. Pareto distinguished between foxes and lions within elites, with foxes governing through consent-seeking strategies
and lions maintaining stability and order. Mosca similarly argued for the inevitability of elites, viewing societies as
dominated by the minority ruling over the majority. Michels, focusing on the role of political parties, suggested that
bureaucracy inevitably leads to oligarchy, as the masses are unable to challenge elite leadership. Michels’ iron law of
oligarchy: the rule by an elite is inevitable within organizations, given their functions. Furthermore, all complex
organizations, regardless of how democratic they are when started, eventually develop into oligarchies.
Democratic elitism: acknowledges the existence of elites but emphasizes the legitimacy of their authority within a
democratic framework. Weber delineated three types of legitimate domination: (1) traditional (2) charismatic (3) rational.
Rational authority, exemplified by bureaucracy, operates through established rules and procedures, maintaining efficiency
and order. To Weber, the state has the monopoly of the binding rule and use of violence over a given territory. Furthermore,
elite domination within state apparatus is inevitable and it requires 1. a minimum of voluntary compliance 2. acceptance of
the commands as valid norms 3. a belief in the legitimacy of the form of domination.
Weber's concept of a rational bureaucracy entails:
- organized functions and rules;
- hierarchical structures and top-down control;
- officials separated from ownership (they do not own means of production/ administration);
- written records of administration;
- an administrative staff that ensures continuity and efficiency.
Why does democratic elitism lack conditions for sustainability? By Robin Eckersley
1. It denies the possibility of collective will formation, emphasizing individual wills without scrutinizing incumbent
collective assumptions.
2. It reduces citizens to individuals with a passive role, thus denying the citizens a role in social movements as
change agents.
