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AQA Sociology A level Paper 3: Theories & Methods (Topics 3 - 10)

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  • AQA A Level Sociology Book One Including AS Level

A* Sociology Student :) Topics include: 3. Sociology & Science 4. Objectivity & Values 5. Functionalism 6. Marxism 7. Feminism 8. Action Theories 9. Globalisation 10. Sociology & Social Policy

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​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​SOCIOLOGY​ ​&​ ​SCIENCE​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​.
POSITIVISM
Pattern,​ ​Laws​ ​&​ ​Inductive​ ​Reasoning
✦​ ​For​ ​positivists,​ ​reality​ ​is​ ​not​ ​random,​ ​but​ ​patterned.​ ​TMT​​ ​we​ ​can​ ​observe,​ ​identify​ ​+​ ​measure​ ​these​ ​patterns.
✦​ ​The​ ​patterns​ ​can​ ​all​ ​be​ ​explained​ ​by​ ​finding​ ​the​ ​facts​ ​that​ ​cause​ ​them.
✦​ ​They​ ​seek​ ​to​ ​discover​ ​the​ ​causes​ ​of​ ​the​ ​patterns​ ​they​ ​observe.
✦​ ​Favour​ ​‘macro’​ ​/​ ​structural​ ​explanations​ ​of​ ​social​ ​phenomena​ ​e.g​ ​Functionalism.
>​ ​TIB​ ​they​ ​see​ ​society​ ​+​ ​it’s​ ​structures​ ​as​ ​something​ ​that​ ​exists​ ​outside​ ​the​ ​human​ ​mind.
✦​ ​They​ ​believe​ ​real​ ​laws​ ​are​ ​discoverable​ ​that​ ​can​ ​determine​ ​how​ ​society​ ​works​ ​(The​ ​method​ ​for​ ​this​ ​is​ ​Induction)
✦​ ​Because​ ​of​ ​inductive​ ​reasoning​ ​(Through​ ​many​ ​observations,​ ​we​ ​come​ ​up​ ​with​ ​a​ ​theory).​ ​Many​ ​observations​ ​will
verify​ ​a​ ​theory​ ​(Verificationism)

Objective​ ​Quantitative​ ​Research
✦​ ​Sociology​ ​should​ ​take​ ​the​ ​experimental​ ​method​ ​that​ ​is​ ​used​ ​in​ ​the​ ​natural​ ​sciences​ ​for​ ​research.
✦​ ​This​ ​is​ ​so​ ​they​ ​can​ ​uncover​ ​the​ ​+​ ​measure​ ​the​ ​patterns​ ​of​ ​behaviour​ ​+​ ​can​ ​make​ ​mathematically​ ​precise​ ​patterns
of​ ​behaviour.​ ​ ​This​ ​inc​ ​questionnaires,​ ​structured​ ​interviews​ ​+​ ​official​ ​state​ ​>>​ ​Reliable.
✦​ ​Researchers​ ​should​ ​be​ ​detached​ ​+​ ​objective,​ ​not​ ​subjective.
✦​ ​But,​ ​in​ ​sociology,​ ​researchers​ ​are​ ​dealing​ ​with​ ​people​ ​=​ ​a​ ​danger​ ​that​ ​the​ ​researcher​ ​may​ ​have​ ​some​ ​influence​ ​on
the​ ​research​ ​E.g​ ​influencing​ ​the​ ​interviewees’​ ​answers.


An​ ​Example:​ ​Positivism​ ​&​ ​Suicide
✦​ ​DURKHEIM​​ ​studied​ ​suicide​ ​to​ ​show​ ​that​ ​sociology​ ​could​ ​be​ ​a​ ​science.
✦​ ​He​ ​used​ ​quantitative​ ​data​ ​from​ ​official​ ​stat​ ​+​ ​found​ ​there​ ​were​ ​patterns​ ​in​ ​suicide​ ​rates.
✦​ ​Rates​ ​for​ ​Protestant​ ​were​ ​higher​ ​than​ ​Catholics.
✦​ ​The​ ​social​ ​facts​ ​that​ ​were​ ​responsible​ ​for​ ​determining​ ​the​ ​suicide​ ​rates​ ​were​ ​the​ ​levels​ ​of​ ​integration​ ​&​ ​regulation.
✦​ ​Thus,​ ​he​ ​claims​ ​to​ ​have​ ​discovered​ ​a​ ​‘real​ ​law’​ ​that​ ​integration​ ​+​ ​regulation​ ​affect​ ​the​ ​rates​ ​of​ ​suicide.


INTERPRETIVISM
✦​ ​Should​ ​not​ ​be​ ​objective​ ​when​ ​studying​ ​humans​ ​+​ ​sociology​ ​is​ ​not​ ​a​ ​science.

The​ ​Subject​ ​Matter​ ​Of​ ​Sociology
✦​ ​The​ ​subject​ ​matter​ ​of​ ​sociology​ ​is​ ​meaningful​ ​social​ ​action.​ ​We​ ​can​ ​only​ ​understand​ ​it​ ​through​ ​meanings​ ​of
actors.
✦​ ​There​ ​are​ ​fundamental​ ​differences​ ​between​ ​natural​ ​sciences​ ​+​ ​sociology:
>​ ​Natural​ ​Science:​ ​Studies​ ​matter​ ​+​ ​can​ ​be​ ​explained​ ​in​ ​a​ ​straightforward​ ​manner.​ ​E.g​ ​Newton’s​ ​apple,​ ​it​ ​can’t​ ​be
studied​ ​in​ ​the​ ​same​ ​way​ ​that​ ​a​ ​human​ ​can​ ​(we​ ​have​ ​conscious​ ​+​ ​choice)
>​ ​Sociology:​ ​Studies​ ​people,​ ​who​ ​have​ ​consciousness.​ ​Humans​ ​are​ ​not​ ​puppet​ ​+​ ​can’t​ ​have​ ​facts​ ​made​ ​about​ ​them.


Verstehen​ ​&​ ​Qualitative​ ​Research
✦​ ​TMT​ ​they​ ​reject​ ​logic​ ​+​ ​methods​ ​of​ ​natural​ ​sciences.​ ​Instead,​ ​we​ ​need​ ​to​ ​look​ ​at​ ​the​ ​meanings​ ​people​ ​give​ ​to​ ​their
actions​ ​+​ ​see​ ​the​ ​world​ ​from​ ​their​ ​viewpoint.
​ They favour qualitative methods.
✦​ ​TMT​ ​we​ ​must​ ​put​ ​ourselves​ ​in​ ​the​ ​place​ ​of​ ​the​ ​actor​ ​(verstehen)​ ஃ


Types​ ​Of​ ​Interpretivism:
#​ I​ nteractionists:​ ​Believe​ ​we​ ​can​ ​have​ ​causal​ ​explanation,​ ​but​ ​do​ ​not​ ​reject​ ​having​ ​a​ ​hypothesis.
GLASER​ ​&​ ​STRAUSS​​ ​favour​ ​a​ ​‘bottom​ ​up​ ​approach’​ ​/​ ​grounded​ ​theory​ ​>​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​entering​ ​the​ ​research​ ​with
a​ ​fixed​ ​hypothesis,​ ​our​ ​ideas​ ​will​ ​gradually​ ​emerge​ ​from​ ​our​ ​research.

#​ ​Phenomenologists​ ​&​ ​Ethnomethodologists:​ ​Reject​ ​the​ ​possibility​ ​of​ ​causal​ ​explanations​ ​of​ ​human​ ​behaviour.
Society​ ​is​ ​not​ ​a​ ​real​ ​thing​ ​out​ ​there​ ​determining​ ​our​ ​actions.​ ​Society​ ​is​ ​not​ ​an​ ​external​ ​force,​ ​but​ ​exists​ ​only​ ​in
consciousness.

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,Interpretivism​ ​&​ ​Suicide:
✦​ ​Interactionist​ ​>​ ​DOUGLAS​ ​>​ ​individuals​ ​have​ ​free​ ​will.​ ​TMT​ ​to​ ​understand​ ​suicide,​ ​we​ ​must​ ​uncover​ ​its​ ​meanings
for​ ​those​ ​involved.
✦​ ​Criticises​ ​Durkheim’s​ ​use​ ​of​ ​quant​ ​data.​ ​Argues​ ​it​ ​is​ ​a​ ​social​ ​construction​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​coroner's​ ​label​ ​to​ ​certain
deaths​ ​as​ ​suicide.
✦​ ​Instead,​ ​we​ ​should​ ​use​ ​qualitative​ ​data​ ​from​ ​case​ ​studies​ ​of​ ​suicides.​ ​To​ ​understand​ ​their​ ​meanings.
EV:​ ​ATKINSON​​ ​>​ ​we​ ​can​ ​never​ ​know​ ​the​ ​‘real​ ​rate’​ ​of​ ​suicide,​ ​even​ ​using​ ​qualitative​ ​methods,​ ​as​ ​we​ ​can​ ​never
know​ ​for​ ​sure​ ​what​ ​meanings​ ​the​ ​person​ ​who​ ​committed​ ​suicide​ ​held.


Postmodernism,​ ​Feminism​ ​&​ ​Scientific​ ​Sociology
✦​ ​Reject​ ​scientific​ ​sociology,​ ​because​ ​they​ ​see​ ​science​ ​as​ ​a​ ​meta​ ​narrative.
✦​ ​Feminists​ ​also​ ​shared​ ​the​ ​same​ ​view.​ ​The​ ​investigation​ ​for​ ​one​ ​theory​ ​excludes​ ​many​ ​groups​ ​of​ ​women.
Quantitative​ ​methods​ ​are​ ​oppressive​ ​+​ ​cannot​ ​capture​ ​the​ ​reality​ ​of​ ​women’s​ ​experiences.
✦​ ​Some​ ​also​ ​argues​ ​that​ ​science​ ​is​ ​an​ ​undesirable​ ​model​ ​for​ ​sociology​ ​to​ ​follow,​ ​because​ ​science​ ​has​ ​not​ ​always​ ​led
to​ ​the​ ​progress​ ​that​ ​positivists​ ​believed​ ​it​ ​would.​ ​E.g​ ​the​ ​emergence​ ​of​ ​‘risk​ ​society’.
TMT​​ ​if​ ​science​ ​produces​ ​such​ ​-ve​ ​consequences,​ ​it​ ​would​ ​be​ ​inappropriate​ ​for​ ​sociology​ ​to​ ​adopt​ ​science​ ​as​ ​a​ ​model.


KARL​ ​POPPER:​ ​How​ ​Science​ ​Grows
✦​ ​What​ ​makes​ ​scientific​ ​knowledge​ ​unique?
✦​ ​Why​ ​has​ ​scientific​ ​knowledge​ ​been​ ​able​ ​to​ ​grow​ ​so​ ​spectacularly​ ​in​ ​just​ ​a​ ​few​ ​century?

The​ ​Fallacy​ ​Of​ ​Induction
✦​ ​Popper​ ​argues​ ​we​ ​should​ ​reject​ ​verification​ ​because​ ​of​ ​the​ ​fallacy​ ​(error)​ ​of​ ​induction.
E.g.​ ​If​ ​we​ ​observe​ ​a​ ​large​ ​number​ ​of​ ​swan,​ ​all​ ​of​ ​which​ ​were​ ​white,​ ​we​ ​may​ ​conclude​ ​that​ ​‘All​ ​swans​ ​are​ ​white’​ ​.
✦​ ​It​ ​will​ ​be​ ​easy​ ​for​ ​us​ ​to​ ​verify​ ​this,​ ​because​ ​many​ ​swans​ ​are​ ​white.​ ​But,​ ​we​ ​cannot​ ​prove​ a
​ ll​ ​swans​ ​are​ ​white,​ ​+​ ​a
single​ ​observation​ ​of​ ​a​ ​black​ ​swan​ ​will​ ​destroy​ ​the​ ​theory.
✦​ ​TMT​​ ​we​ ​can​ ​never​ ​prove​ ​a​ ​theory​ ​by​ ​producing​ ​more​ ​observations​ ​to​ ​verify​ ​it.


Falsificationism
✦​ ​What​ ​makes​ ​science​ ​unique​ ​is​ ​not​ ​verification,​ ​but​ ​falsification​ ​(proved​ ​wrong​ ​by​ ​evidence)
✦​ ​For​ ​Popper,​ ​a​ ​good​ ​theory​ ​has​ ​2​ ​features:
In​ ​principle​ ​(theory)​ ​It​ ​is​ ​falsifiable,​​ ​but​ ​when​ ​tested,​ ​it It​ ​is​ ​bold​​ ​+​ ​makes​ ​big​ ​generalisations​ ​that​ ​precisely
stands​ ​up​ ​to​ ​all​ ​attempts​ ​to​ ​disprove​ ​it. predict​ ​a​ ​large​ ​no.​ ​of​ ​events.
✦​ ​TMT​ ​A​ ​good​ ​theory​ ​is​ ​not​ ​necessarily​ ​a​ ​true​ ​theory,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​one​ ​that​ ​has​ ​resist​ ​attempts​ ​to​ ​falsify​ ​it​ ​so​ ​far.

Criticism​ ​&​ ​The​ ​Open​ ​Society.
✦​ ​For​ ​a​ ​theory​ ​to​ ​be​ ​falsifiable,​ ​it​ ​be​ ​open​ ​to​ ​criticism​ ​from​ ​other​ ​scientists.​ ​TMT​ ​science​ ​is​ ​a​ p
​ ublic​ ​activity,​ ​where
everything​ ​is​ ​open​ ​to​ ​criticism.​ ​TIW​ ​scientific​ ​knowledge​ ​grow​ ​so​ ​rapidly.
✦​ ​Science​ ​grows​ ​in​ ​open/liberal​ ​societies,​ ​because​ ​these​ ​societies​ ​believe​ ​in​ ​free​ ​expression​ ​+​ ​the​ ​right​ ​to​ ​challenge
accepted​ ​ideas.
✦​ ​By​ ​contrast,​ ​closed​ ​societies​ ​are​ ​dominated​ ​by​ ​an​ ​official​ ​belief​ ​system​ ​that​ ​claim​ ​to​ ​have​ ​the​ ​monopoly​ ​of​ ​the
truth.​ ​Such​ ​belief​ ​system​ ​struggle​ ​to​ ​grow.


Implications​ ​For​ ​Sociology
✦​ ​Believes​ ​much​ ​of​ ​sociology​ ​is​ ​unscientific​ ​because​ ​may​ ​of​ ​its​ ​theories​ ​are​ ​unfalsifiable.
E.g​ ​Marxism​ ​predicts​ ​that​ ​there​ ​will​ ​be​ ​a​ ​revolution​ ​to​ ​a​ ​classless​ ​society,​ ​but​ ​this​ ​has​ ​not​ ​occurred​ ​yet​ ​because​ ​of
F.F.​ ​TMT​ ​the​ ​prediction​ ​cannot​ ​be​ ​falsified.​ ​If​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a​ ​revolution,​ ​Marxism​ ​is​ c
​ orrect,​ ​if​ ​there​ ​isn’t,​ ​Marxism​ ​is​ ​still
correct.
✦​ ​But,​ ​sociology​ ​can​ ​be​ ​scientific.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​capable​ ​of​ ​producing​ ​hypotheses​ ​that​ ​can​ ​be​ ​falsified.
E.g​ ​FORD​​ ​hypothesised​ ​comprehensive​ ​schooling​ ​would​ ​produce​ ​social​ ​mixing​ ​of​ ​pupils​ ​from​ ​different​ ​social
classes.​ ​She​ ​was​ ​able​ ​to​ ​test​ ​+​ ​falsify​ ​this​ ​through​ ​empirical​ ​research.
✦​ ​TMT​ ​Popper​ ​does​ ​not​ ​believe​ ​that​ ​untestable​ ​ideas​ ​are​ ​worthless.​ ​Sociology​ ​may​ ​have​ ​more​ ​untestable​ ​ideas​ ​than

2

,the​ ​natural​ ​science,​ ​because​ ​sociology​ ​has​ ​not​ ​been​ ​in​ ​existence​ ​as​ ​long​ ​as​ ​natural​ ​sciences​ ​have.

Thomas​ ​KUHN:​ ​Scientific​ ​Paradigms
The​ ​Paradigm
✦​ ​What​ ​makes​ ​science​ ​unique​ ​is​ ​a​ ​paradigm.​ ​Science​ ​cannot​ ​exist​ ​without​ ​a​ ​shared​ ​paradigm.
✦​ ​Paradigm​ ​>​ ​shared​ ​by​ ​members​ ​of​ ​a​ ​scientific​ ​community.​ ​It​ ​provides​ ​a​ ​basic​ ​framework​ ​of​ ​assumption,​ ​methods
+​ ​techniques​ ​that​ ​the​ ​members​ ​should​ ​follow/use.
✦​ ​If​ ​they​ ​don’t​ ​conform​ ​to​ ​the​ ​paradigm,​ ​their​ ​work​ ​may​ ​go​ ​unpublished​ ​(TIW​ ​Dr​ ​Velikovsky’s​ ​theory​ ​was​ ​ignored)
✦​ ​TMT​ ​a​ ​paradigm​ ​is​ ​a​ ​set​ ​of​ ​norms,​ ​as​ ​it​ ​tells​ ​scientists​ ​how​ ​they​ ​should​ ​think.
✦​ ​Compared​ ​paradigm​ ​to​ ​puzzle​ ​solving.​ ​The​ ​paradigm​ ​provides​ ​the​ ​questions​ ​+​ ​broadly,​ ​the​ ​answers.
✦​ ​It​ ​is​ ​the​ ​scientist’s​ ​job​ ​to​ ​fill​ ​out​ ​the​ ​detail.
Scientific​ ​Revolutions
✦​ ​But,​ ​not​ ​all​ ​puzzle​ ​solving​ ​is​ ​successful.​ ​There​ ​may​ ​be​ ​some​ ​anomalies.
✦​ ​When​ ​these​ ​anomalies​ ​build​ ​up,​ ​the​ ​paradigm​ ​is​ ​weakened.​ ​This​ ​leads​ ​to​ ​arguments​ ​about​ ​the​ ​basic​ ​assumptions
of​ ​the​ ​paradigm.
✦​ ​Science​ ​now​ ​enters​ ​a​ ​phase​ ​of​ ​crisis.
✦​ ​But,​ ​then​ ​a​ ​scientific​ ​revolution​ ​will​ ​occur.
✦​ ​When​ ​there​ ​2​ ​competing​ ​paradigms,​ ​eventually​ ​one​ ​does​ ​win​ ​+​ ​become​ ​accepted​ ​by​ ​the​ ​scientific​ ​community,
allowing​ ​normal​ ​science​ ​to​ ​resume,​ ​but​ ​with​ ​a​ ​new​ ​set​ ​of​ ​basic​ ​assumptions.
✦​ ​TMT​ ​While​ ​for​ ​Popper,​ ​a​ ​scientific​ ​community​ ​is​ ​about​ ​falsification,​ ​for​ ​Kuhn,​ ​the​ ​scientific​ ​community​ ​is​ ​about
scientists​ ​conforming​ ​to​ ​the​ ​paradigm,​ ​so​ ​they​ ​can​ ​make​ ​progress.
Implications​ ​For​ ​Sociology
✦​ ​Sociology​ ​is​ ​currently​ ​pre​ ​paradigmatic​ ​+​ ​pre​ ​scientific,​ ​as​ ​it​ ​has​ ​many​ ​perspectives.
✦​ ​There​ ​is​ ​no​ ​shared​ ​paradigm.
✦​ ​E.g​ ​Funct​ ​disagree​ ​with​ ​Marxists​ ​about​ ​basic​ ​questions​ ​e.g​ ​whether​ ​society​ ​is​ ​based​ ​on​ ​consensus​ ​or​ ​conflict.
✦​ ​Even​ ​within​ ​perspective​ ​there​ ​are​ ​often​ ​disagreement​ ​about​ ​key​ ​concepts​ ​+​ ​issues.
✦​ ​Sociology​ ​can​ ​only​ ​become​ ​a​ ​science​ ​if​ ​these​ ​disagreement​ ​were​ ​resolved.
✦​ ​P/m​ ​may​ ​argue​ ​that​ ​a​ ​paradigm​ ​is​ ​not​ ​desirable​ ​in​ ​sociology,​ ​because​ ​it​ ​sounds​ ​like​ ​a​ ​meta​ ​narrative​ ​-​ ​A
dominating​ ​view​ ​of​ ​what​ ​reality​ ​is​ ​like.


REALISM,​ ​SCIENCE​ ​&​ ​SOCIOLOGY
✦​ ​A​ ​3rd​ ​view​ ​of​ ​science​ ​come​ ​from​ ​realists.
✦​ ​KEAT​ ​&​ ​URRY​​ ​>​ ​there​ ​are​ ​similarities​ ​between​ ​sociology​ ​+​ ​natural​ ​sciences,​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​control​ ​he
research​ ​has​ ​over​ ​the​ ​variables​ ​in​ ​research.
✦​ ​They​ ​distinguish​ ​between​ ​open​ ​systems​ ​+​ ​closed​ ​systems:
Closed​ ​System: Open​ ​Systems:
-​ ​Researcher​ ​can​ ​control​ ​+​ ​measure​ ​all​ ​variable.​ ​TMT -​ ​Researcher​ ​cannot​ ​control​ ​+​ ​measure​ ​all​ ​variable.​ ​TMT
they​ ​can​ ​make​ ​precise​ ​predictions.​ ​Often​ ​uses​ ​lab they​ ​cannot​ ​make​ ​precise​ ​predictions.​ ​E.g​ ​A​ ​metrologist
experiments cannot​ ​predict​ ​the​ ​weather​ ​100%​ ​accurately.
✦​ ​Realist​ ​>​ ​Sociologists​ ​study​ ​open​ ​systems,​ ​where​ ​the​ ​processes​ ​are​ ​too​ ​complex​ ​to​ ​make​ ​exact​ ​predictions.
E.g​ ​We​ ​cannot​ ​predict​ ​crime​ ​rate​ ​precisely,​ ​as​ ​there​ ​are​ ​too​ ​many​ ​variables​ ​involved,​ ​most​ ​of​ ​which​ ​cannot​ ​be
controlled,​ ​measures​ ​or​ ​identified.

Underlying​ ​Structures.
✦​ ​Science​ ​is​ ​not​ ​only​ ​concerned​ ​with​ ​observable​ ​phenomena,​ ​it​ ​often​ ​assumes​ ​the​ ​existence​ ​of​ ​unobservable
structures​ ​E.g​ ​Physicists​ ​cannot​ ​directly​ ​observe​ ​the​ ​inside​ ​of​ ​a​ ​black​ ​hole​ ​in​ ​space.​ ​This​ ​goes​ ​against​ ​positivists.
✦​ ​Interpretivist​ ​say​ ​meanings​ ​cannot​ ​be​ ​directly​ ​observed,​ ​+​ ​TIW​ ​sociology​ ​cannot​ ​be​ ​scientific
✦​ ​But,​ ​if​ ​science​ ​can​ ​study​ ​unobservable​ ​phenomena,​ ​then​ ​this​ ​is​ ​not​ ​barrier​ ​to​ ​studying​ ​meanings​ ​scientifically.
✦​ ​TMT​ ​both​ ​sociology​ ​+​ ​science​ ​attempt​ ​to​ ​explain​ ​causes​ ​of​ ​events​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​structures​ ​+​ ​observing​ ​the​ ​their
effects.​ ​E.g​ ​We​ ​cannot​ ​see​ ​social​ ​class,​ ​but​ ​we​ ​can​ ​observe​ ​its​ ​effects​ ​on​ ​people’s​ ​life​ ​chances.
✦​ ​TMT​ ​Marxism​ ​can​ ​be​ ​seen​ ​as​ ​scientific​ ​because​ ​it​ ​sees​ ​underlying​ ​structure​ ​e.g​ ​capitalism,​ ​producing​ ​effects​ ​e.g
poverty.
✦​ ​TST​ ​there​ ​is​ ​little​ ​difference​ ​between​ ​natural​ ​science​ ​+​ ​sociology,​ ​except​ ​that​ ​some​ ​natural​ ​science​ ​able​ ​to​ ​study
closed​ ​systems.


3

, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​OBJECTIVITY​ ​&​ ​VALUES​ ​IN​ ​SOCIOLOGY
.
➵​ ​Some​ ​argues​ ​that​ ​it​ ​is​ ​possible​ ​+​ ​desirable​ ​to​ ​keep​ ​subjective​ ​values​ ​out​ ​of​ ​research​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​true,​ ​scientific
knowledge​ ​about​ ​society.
➵​ ​Others​ ​argue,​ ​because​ ​sociologists​ ​are​ ​humans,​ ​studying​ ​other​ ​humans,​ ​it’s​ ​impossible​ ​to​ ​keep​ ​personal​ ​values
out​ ​of​ ​their​ ​research.

THE​ ​CLASSICAL​ ​SOCIOLOGISTS​ ​&​ ​VALUES
The​ ​Early​ ​Positivists
➵​ ​E.g​ ​Comte​ ​&​ ​Durkheim​ ​-​ ​the​ ​creation​ ​of​ ​a​ ​better​ ​society​ ​was​ ​not​ ​a​ ​matter​ ​of​ ​subjective​ ​values​ ​or​ ​personal
opinions.
➵​ ​As​ ​the​ ​science​ ​of​ ​society,​ ​sociology’s​ ​job​ ​was​ ​to​ ​discover​ ​the​ ​truth​ ​about​ ​how​ ​society​ ​works.
➵​ ​Scientific​ ​sociology​ ​would​ ​reveal​ ​the​ ​correct​ ​society.​ ​TMT​ ​by​ ​discovering​ ​the​ ​truth​ ​about​ ​how​ ​society​ ​worked,
sociologists​ ​would​ ​be​ ​able​ ​to​ ​say​ ​how​ ​thing​ ​ought​ ​to​ ​be.


Karl​ ​Marx
➵​ ​There​ ​is​ ​a​ ​debate​ ​over​ ​whether​ ​Karl​ ​Marx​ ​was​ ​a​ ​positivists.
➵​ ​ ​He​ ​saw​ ​himself​ ​as​ ​a​ ​scientist​ ​through​ ​his​ ​historical​ ​analysis​ ​&​ ​materialism.
➵​ ​The​ ​role​ ​of​ ​Marx​ ​was​ ​to​ ​reveal​ ​the​ ​problems​ ​of​ ​capitalism​ ​&​ ​this​ ​can​ ​be​ ​seen​ ​as​ ​objective​ ​&​ ​scientific.



Max​ ​Weber
➵​ ​Weber​ ​makes​ ​a​ ​sharp​ ​distinction​ ​between​ ​value​ ​judgement​ ​+​ ​facts.
➵​ ​Argues​ ​we​ ​can’t​ ​obtain​ ​the​ ​one​ ​from​ ​the​ ​other.
E.g​ ​Research​ ​might​ ​show​ ​divorcees​ ​are​ ​more​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​commit​ ​suicide.​ ​But,​ ​this​ ​doesn’t​ ​necessarily​ ​lead
to​ ​the​ ​belief​ ​that​ ​we​ ​should​ ​make​ ​divorce​ ​harder​ ​to​ ​achieve.
➵​ ​There​ ​is​ ​nothing​ ​about​ ​the​ ​fact​ ​that​ ​force​ ​us​ ​to​ ​accept​ ​the​ ​value.​ ​E.g​ ​we​ ​might​ ​argue​ ​that​ ​people​ ​have​ ​every​ ​right
to​ ​commit​ ​suicide​ ​(values),​ ​but​ ​none​ ​of​ ​these​ ​judgements​ ​are​ ​proven​ ​by​ ​the​ ​fact.
TST​ ​a​ ​value​ ​can​ ​neither​ ​be​ ​proved/disproved​ ​by​ ​facts.
➵​ ​Weber​ ​sees​ ​an​ ​essential​ ​role​ ​for​ ​values​ ​in​ ​sociological​ ​research.​ ​His​ ​views​ ​can​ ​be​ ​divided​ ​into​ ​4​ ​parts:
Values​ ​As​ ​A​ ​Guide​ ​To​ ​Research
-​ ​Social​ ​reality​ ​is​ ​made​ ​up​ ​of​ ​a​ ​meaningless​ ​infinity​ ​of​ ​facts​ ​that​ ​make​ ​it​ ​impossible​ ​to​ ​study.
-​ ​But,​ ​how​ ​do​ ​we​ ​choose​ ​which​ ​facts​ ​to​ ​study?
-​ ​Weber​ ​>​ ​We​ ​choose​ ​by​ ​using​ ​our​ ​values.​ ​E.g​ ​Feminists​ ​value​ ​gender​ ​equality.​ ​This​ ​leads​ ​them​ ​to​ ​study​ ​women’s
oppression​ ​+​ ​to​ ​develop​ ​concept​ ​e.g​ ​Patriarchy.

Data​ ​Collection​ ​&​ ​Hypothesis​ ​Testing
-​ ​We​ ​must​ ​be​ ​objective​ ​when​ ​collecting​ ​facts.​ ​E.g​ ​We​ ​can​ ​not​ ​ask​ ​leading​ ​questions.
-​ ​Once​ ​we​ ​have​ ​gathered​ ​the​ ​facts,​ ​we​ ​can​ ​use​ ​them​ ​to​ ​test​ ​a​ ​hypothesis.

Values​ ​In​ ​The​ ​Interpretation​ ​Of​ ​Data
-​ ​Values​ ​are​ ​important​ ​when​ ​we​ ​interpret​ ​our​ ​findings​ ​from​ ​the​ ​data.​ ​The​ ​facts​ ​need​ ​to​ ​be​ ​in​ ​a​ ​theoretical
framework,​ ​so​ ​we​ ​can​ ​understand​ ​it’s​ ​significance​ ​+​ ​draw​ ​conclusions​ ​from​ ​them,​ ​this​ ​is​ ​influenced​ ​by​ ​our​ ​values.

Values​ ​&​ ​The​ ​Sociologist​ ​As​ ​A​ ​Citizen
-​ ​Research​ ​finding​ ​have​ ​real​ ​effects​ ​on​ ​people,​ ​but​ ​sociologists​ ​sometimes​ ​choose​ ​to​ ​ignore​ ​this.
TIB​ ​they​ ​say​ ​it’s​ ​their​ ​job​ ​to​ ​just​ ​conduct​ ​objective​ ​research​ ​+​ ​to​ ​discover​ ​the​ ​facts.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​for​ ​the​ ​public​ ​to​ ​decide
what​ ​use​ ​to​ ​make​ ​of​ ​their​ ​findings.
-​ ​But,​ ​Weber​ ​reject​ ​this​ ​view​ ​=​ ​says​ ​they​ ​should​ ​take​ ​moral​ ​responsibility​ ​for​ ​their​ ​findings.​ ​E.g​ ​Einstein’s​ ​theories
helped​ ​to​ ​make​ ​the​ ​atomic​ ​bomb​ ​possible,​ ​yet​ ​he​ ​spoke​ ​against​ ​nuclear​ ​weapons.


TST​ ​Weber​ ​sees​ ​values​ ​as​ ​relevant​ ​to​ ​the​ ​sociologist,​ ​in​ ​deciding​ ​what​ ​to​ ​research,​ ​interpreting​ ​the​ ​data​ ​+​ ​deciding

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