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Summary Democracy and Nazism A level AQA Notes
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Notes for the whole of Democracy and Nazism for A Level AQA History. Includes views of Historians on key events.
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THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC 1918-1933THE GERMAN REICH
It was established in 1971 and referred to as the Second Reich. The First Reich (Holy Roman Empire) lasted from 962 until 1806.
The Second Reich:
• Before 1871 Germany consisted of lots of smaller states.
• In 1871, the largest German state, Prussia, brought most of the German states together in a new Reich (empire) dominated by
Prussia.
• Most German people (e.g. nationalists) wanted the states to form a strong, united, independent German national state.
• Some German’s were upset that the new Reich didn’t include Austria and it was ruled by a Kaiser.
POST WWI
By 1918, it was apparent that Germany was losing the war. Both military and civilians were exhausted.
War economy:
• Total war geared the economy to the war effort, prioritising military over civilians.
• The government introduced price ceilings, requisitioning and then rationing. Food, even potatoes were in short supply. So
were coal and clothing.
• Long queues for food, malnutrition and starvation were common. 80,000 children died of starvation in 1916. The harsh winter
of 1916-17 made shortages worse.
Losing morale:
• By autumn 1918, the German army recognised it needed to sue for peace. It realised US President Wilson would be more
amenable to a civilian government.
• Bitterness and resentment at a sacrifice and hardship that people faced through the war fueling social and political unrest,
even in the armed forces.
• Ludendorff said in his autobiography:
- “Retreating troops meeting a fresh division going bravely into action, shouted at them things like “Blacklegs” and “You’ve
prolonged the war.”
Social discontent:
• Profiteers and black marketeers grew wealthy, and the rich did not suffer like the majority. This worsened social divisions and
generated more anger.
• There was a wave of strikes across Germany 1917.
War developments 1917-1918:
• In 1917, the new Russian government admitted defeat against Germany. Germany imposed the Treat of Brest-Litovsk on
Russia in Spring 1918.
• In 1918, a major spring offensive by the German army failed.
POLITICAL CRISIS OF OCT-NOV 1918
By 1918, people who once really respected authority became rebellious and open to revolutionary ideas. Meanwhile, the
traditional elites worried not only about preventing revolution, but how they could escape the blame for the defeat.
Impact of the Bolshevik Revolution:
• The 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia alarmed political elites across Europe and led to greater political activity among the
working classes.
• A small group of Bolshevik revolutionaries showed it was possible to overthrow an autocratic monarchy and that the army
could not prevent revolution.
Revolutionary winds in Germany:
• Economic problems and military failures in 1918 destroyed morale and led to criticism of the government. People become
more open to revolutionary politics.
,• Mutinies spread from Kiel across Germany. Revolutionary committees were formed, demonstrating anger at Germany’s
leaders, military and political.
• The unrest in Germany from 1918 into 1919, alongside important political change, is often called the 'German Revolution' - a
revolution from below.
Key political developments in 1918:
• 29 Sep: German generals recommend a civilian government and armistice.
• 3 Oct: Prince Max is made Chancellor and forms a government.
• 31 Oct: Kiel mutiny. Unrest spreads.
• 9 Nov: Mac hands chancellorship to SPD leader Ebert. A republic is declared. The Kaiser abdicates and flees to the
Netherlands.
• 10 Nov: Ebert makes a secret deal with the army: Ebert-Groener Pact.
• 11 Nov: The new German government signs the armistice.
Chancellor Ebert:
• Ebert was made chancellor. He was leader of the SPD, and elected deputy in the Reichstag and chair of the Council of People’s
Deputies.
• He brought members of the more radical USPD into the government as well.
• Ebert made a deal with General Groener, vital to the transition to the republic.
• Groener guaranteed the army and civil service would support Ebert’s government if it supported the officer crops and
protected the army’s food supply.
Historical Views:
• Assessment of Ludendorff:
- Hite and Hinton (2000) “Ludendorff’s manoeuvre… the myth of the 'stab in the back' and the shock of defeat [were] the
background of the birth of democracy in Germany. It was not a promising beginning.”
• Assessment of Ebert:
- Pinfield (2015) “Ebert could reconcile the radicals … to a process of reform and prevent mass support being given to the
revolutionaries.”
• Assessment of the Republic:
- Carr (1987) “The Republic was widely accepted by many Germans … as a convent means of filling the void left by the
collapse of monarchy.”
WEIMAR CONSTITUTION
Weimar was the place chosen for the Constitution Convention because it represented Germany’s culture rather than its
militarism, which Berlin did. Berlin was also too unstable. Weimar seemed to signal a break with the past and suggest a new king
of future.
Germany’s left-wing parties:
• SPD (moderate), USPD (radical) and KPD (Communist). These tended to attract more working-class voters.
• The left wind believed in greater economic and social equality, wealth redistribution, more taxation to spend on public
services and greater workers’ rights.
Germany’s centre parties:
• DDP and Zentrum (largely Catholic parties but with a wide range of supporters and views. Generally pro Weimar Republic).
• The centre had liberal ideas such as individual and economic freedom, a more equal distribution of wealth and some taxation
for public services.
Germany’s right-wing parties:
• DVP and DNVP.
• The right wing was conservative. It favoured authoritarian leaders, low taxation, traditional values, less equality and most
were monarchists.
, Political turmoil pre-convention:
• The USPD had left the government in December 1918.
• The Spartacist revolt took place in Berlin from January 4-15, 1919. It was suppressed by the army and Freikorps with Ebert’s
full support. Over 100 workers were killed.
• Left wing parties were bitterly divided over Ebert’s actions. The KPD never forgave the SPD. The USPD split some joined the
KPD other the SPD.
January 1919 elections:
• In January 1919 there were elections for the German Constituent Assembly.
• The KPD boycotted them. Political parties that later voted for the constitution won 77% of the vote, the SPD had 38%, the Z
and BVP had 20% and DDP had 19%.
TERMS OF THE WEIMAR CONSTITUTION
Weimar was the place chosen for the Constitutional Convention. Weimar seems to signal a break with the past and suggest a
new kind of future.
The Chancellor:
• The Chancellor was the party leader who could persuade other political parties to work with them.
• This involved a lot of compromise and deals could break down.
The President:
• The president was elected every 7 years by a popular vote.
• Presidential powers included: appointing or dismissing the chancellor, dissolving the Reichstag, calling for new elections and
commanding the army.
• Article 48 of the Constitution was significant. In emergencies, Article 48 was invoked to allow the president to rule by decree.
• The Reichstag had to be informed of all measures the president took under Article 48 and could revoke them.
The Reichstag:
• The constitution established a democratic, parliamentary republic in which everyone 20 or older voted every 4 years for a new
parliament and every 7 years for a president.
• Proportional representation encouraged political participation by giving influence to minority views.
• A coalition government was the usual outcome.
• Changes of government happened more than every four years and so did elections. A change of government didn’t necessarily
mean an election.
Länder and the Reichsrat:
• Germany was a federal state. The Länder (local states e.g. Bavaria) ran major services like education and the police.
• All state monarchs were replaced in November 1918.
• In an emergency the federal (national) government could intervene in the Länder.
• The Reichsrat was the second chamber of the federal government. There were 67 members from 17 Länder.
• The Reichsrat could advise the Reichstag and react new laws but could be overruled by the Reichstag.
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
The Weimar Constitution signaled a departure from the Kaiser’s Germany, but it was not public.
The strengths of the Weimar Constitution:
• It was highly democratic.
• No one party could dominate without over 50% of the vote.
• More people’s interests were reflected in government.
• The president’s emergency powers could be checked by the Reichstag.
The weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution:
• Germany had no experience of this level of democracy.
• Coalitions gave minority parties the balance of power: it needs the traditional elites and imperial civil service who tended to
not support the Weimar Republic.
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