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Samenvatting Methodologie van de sociale wetenschappen S0A18a
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Methodologie van de socialewetenschappen
Schakeljaar 2023 bedrijfscommunicatie
Linn Rademaekers
,Inhoudstafel
Inhoudstafel............................................................................................................................................1
Hoofdstuk 1: waarom sociaal wetenschappelijk onderzoek?....................................................................9
Voorbeelden................................................................................................................................................ 10
Opwarming van de aarden: inconvenient truth versus global warming swindle...........................................10
War against the crome in New York: hoe werkt het?.....................................................................................10
Botsende beschavingen..................................................................................................................................11
Polls verkiezingen: vertekend..........................................................................................................................11
Wetenschapper als bokser?............................................................................................................................12
Verband gamen en agressie............................................................................................................................12
De wetenschappelijke aanpak...................................................................................................................... 13
Wetenschap: een specifieke benadering........................................................................................................13
Lekenkennis versus wetenschappelijke kennis............................................................................................13
Alternatieve bronnen van kennis over waarheid............................................................................................14
Waarom wetenschappelijke kennis superieur is.........................................................................................15
Wat te verwachten van methodologie?..........................................................................................................15
Bouwsteen 1................................................................................................................................................15
Bouwsteen 2................................................................................................................................................15
Hoofdstuk 2: bouwstenen, soorten wetenschappelijk onderzoek...........................................................16
Bouwstenen van wetenschappelijk onderzoek.............................................................................................16
Theorie en empirie..........................................................................................................................................16
Theorie: denken..........................................................................................................................................16
Empirie: observeren....................................................................................................................................18
Inductie en deductie........................................................................................................................................18
Empirische cyclus van wetenschappelijk onderzoek: adriaan de groot..........................................................19
Empirische cyclus........................................................................................................................................19
Evaluatiecriteria voor wetenschappelijke kennis........................................................................................... 20
Betrouwbaarheid.............................................................................................................................................20
Geldigheid / validiteit......................................................................................................................................20
Meetgeldigheid...........................................................................................................................................20
Externe geldigheid.......................................................................................................................................21
Interne geldigheid.......................................................................................................................................21
Veralgemeningen.........................................................................................................................................21
Vakmanschap als kwaliteit..............................................................................................................................22
Soorten sociaalwetenschappelijk onderzoek................................................................................................ 22
Theoriegericht versus praktijkgericht onderzoek............................................................................................22
1
, Praktijkgericht onderzoek: evaluatieonderzoek..........................................................................................23
Praktijkgericht onderzoek: actieonderzoek.................................................................................................24
Kwantitatief versus kwalitatief onderzoek......................................................................................................24
Kwantitatief onderzoek...............................................................................................................................24
Kwalitatief onderzoek..................................................................................................................................24
Hoofdstuk 3: filosofische achtergrond: epistemologische beginselen.....................................................25
De ontwikkeling van de epistemologie van de wetenschappen.....................................................................25
Empirische wetenschap: positivisme en empirisme.......................................................................................25
Empirisme....................................................................................................................................................25
Fancis Bacon................................................................................................................................................25
David Hume.................................................................................................................................................26
Wiener Kreis: logisch positivisme en verificationisme....................................................................................27
Karl popper: principe falsificatie.....................................................................................................................28
Thomas Kuhns paradigma’s.............................................................................................................................28
Imre Lakatos: theorie met meerinhoud..........................................................................................................29
Wat met de sociale wetenschappen?............................................................................................................ 30
Positivisme (naturalisme) binnen de sociale wetenschappen........................................................................30
Constructivisme (interpretatieve wetenschap) binnen de sociale wetenschappen.......................................31
Hoofdstuk 4: ethiek in sociaalwetenschappelijk onderzoek...................................................................32
Ideologie en wetenschap................................................................................................................................32
Max Weber..................................................................................................................................................33
Hoe omgaan met deelnemers aan onderzoek...............................................................................................33
Principe 1: vermijden van schade als basisprincipe........................................................................................33
Principe 2: vrijwillige toestemming of informed consent...............................................................................34
Deelnemers moeten over voldoende informatie beschikken.....................................................................34
Deelname is vrijwillig...................................................................................................................................34
Principe 3: privacy garanderen........................................................................................................................34
Professionele standaarden en deontologie................................................................................................... 35
CUDOS-principes.............................................................................................................................................35
Samenleving en wetenschap........................................................................................................................ 36
Hoofdstuk 5: onderzoek ontwerpen: strategie en doelstellingen............................................................37
Onderzoeksplan........................................................................................................................................... 37
Probleemformulering of probleemstelling.................................................................................................... 38
Algemene vraagstelling en onderzoekdoelstelling: fundamenteel versus praktijkgericht.............................38
Literatuurstudie: status quaestionis................................................................................................................39
Vraagstelling en onderzoeksvragen.................................................................................................................39
2
, Beschrijvende kennis...................................................................................................................................40
Verklarende kennis......................................................................................................................................40
Voorspellende kennis..................................................................................................................................41
Evaluatieve kennis.......................................................................................................................................41
Onderzoeksopzet of technisch onderwerp.................................................................................................... 41
Plaats en situatie van waarnemingen: waar?..................................................................................................41
Tijdstip en periode van waarneming: wanneer en hoe lang?.........................................................................42
Onderzoekseenheden en kenmerken: wie?....................................................................................................42
Instrumenten: methode en waarneming: hoe?..............................................................................................42
Tijdsplanning en financieel overzicht..............................................................................................................43
Hoofdstuk 6: kwantitatief en kwalitatief meting....................................................................................44
Meten: enkele basisbegrippen..................................................................................................................... 44
Het meetproces...............................................................................................................................................44
Betekenisverschuiving of betekenisvernauwing.............................................................................................44
Soorten theoretische concepten.....................................................................................................................45
Soorten kenmerken: complexiteit en abstractiegraad van concept...........................................................45
Soorten fouten: veralgemeningsfout, abstractiefout, item bias.................................................................46
Meten: kwalitatieve versus kwantitatieve benadering...................................................................................46
Kwantitatief meten...................................................................................................................................... 47
Uitgangspunt: klassieke testtheorie................................................................................................................47
Formule: X = T + I + e...................................................................................................................................47
Enkele kenmerken van kwantitatieve variabelen............................................................................................47
Continue variabelen versus discrete variabelen.........................................................................................47
Meetniveau van numerieke variabelen.......................................................................................................48
Schaaltechnieken.............................................................................................................................................48
Likertschaal..................................................................................................................................................48
Guttmanschaal............................................................................................................................................49
Bijhorend Guttmanschaal: steppingstonehypothese / gateway theory.....................................................49
Operationaliseren van relaties tussen variabelen...........................................................................................50
Model: statistische controle........................................................................................................................50
Model: mediatie..........................................................................................................................................51
Model: interactie/moderatie.......................................................................................................................52
Modellen herkennen en kruistabellen........................................................................................................53
Interactie/moderatie-effect afleiden uit kruistabel....................................................................................53
Statistische controle of mediatie afleiden uit kruistabel.............................................................................55
Verschil tussen partiële en volledige mediatie............................................................................................55
Meetbetrouwbaarheid nagaan.......................................................................................................................56
Test-hertestbetrouwbaarheid.....................................................................................................................56
3
, Interne consistentie.....................................................................................................................................56
Cronbachs Alfa.............................................................................................................................................57
Meetvaliditeit (geldigheid) nagaan.................................................................................................................57
Kwalitatief meten......................................................................................................................................... 59
Open karakter van kwalitatieve benadering...................................................................................................59
Illustratie: grounded theory (gefungeerde theoriebenadering).................................................................60
Illustratie: Kwalitatieve Comparatieve Analyse (QCA).................................................................................61
Kwaliteit van kwalitatieve metingen...............................................................................................................62
Credibiliteit..................................................................................................................................................62
Reflexiviteit..................................................................................................................................................62
Hoofdstuk 7: selectie van onderzoekseenheden: steekproeven.............................................................63
Aggregatie en desaggregatie........................................................................................................................ 63
Ecologische fout (ecological fallacy) – desaggregatie.....................................................................................63
Individualiseringsfout (atomistic fallacy) – aggregatie....................................................................................63
Steekproeven: twee logica’s van selectie........................................................................................................64
Toevalstreekproef (naturalistisch)...............................................................................................................64
Theoretische steekproef (constructivistisch)..............................................................................................64
Toevalssteekproeven.................................................................................................................................... 64
Stappen bij het trekken van toevalssteekproeven..........................................................................................64
Types toevalssteekproeven.............................................................................................................................65
Enkelvoudige/aselecte toevalsteekproef....................................................................................................65
Gestratificeerde steekproef.........................................................................................................................66
De clustersteekproef en tweetrapssteekproef............................................................................................67
Tweefasensteekproef..................................................................................................................................68
Foutbronnen bij steekproeftrekkingen...........................................................................................................68
Dekkingsfouten............................................................................................................................................68
Steekproeffouten.........................................................................................................................................68
Non-responsfouten.....................................................................................................................................70
Steekproefgrootte...........................................................................................................................................71
Kwantitatieve niet-toevalssteekproeven.........................................................................................................71
Theoretische steekproeven.......................................................................................................................... 72
De eigenheid van theoretische steekproeftrekking........................................................................................72
Het proces: inductieve methode.................................................................................................................72
Toevalssteekproef versus theoretische steekproef.........................................................................................73
Strategieën in theoretische steekproeftrekking..............................................................................................73
Doelgerichte steekproef..............................................................................................................................73
Sneeuwbalsteekproef..................................................................................................................................73
Gelegenenheidssteekproef.........................................................................................................................73
4
, Adaptieve steekproeftrekking.....................................................................................................................73
Hoofdstuk 8: experimentele ontwerpen................................................................................................74
Onderdelen van het klassieke experimentele ontwerp..................................................................................75
Basisschema van een klassiek experiment......................................................................................................75
Randomisering en matchen............................................................................................................................76
3 soorten matchen......................................................................................................................................76
Voormeting......................................................................................................................................................77
Bedreiging van de interne validiteit.............................................................................................................. 77
Buitenexperimentele gebeurtenissen (history)..............................................................................................78
Maturatie of spontane verandering................................................................................................................78
Testeffect.........................................................................................................................................................78
Instrumentatie.................................................................................................................................................78
Statistische regressie.......................................................................................................................................79
Selectie............................................................................................................................................................79
Uitval (experimentele mortaliteit)..................................................................................................................79
Verwachtingen van de onderzoeker................................................................................................................79
Bedreigingen van de externe validiteit.......................................................................................................... 80
Populatieve validiteit.......................................................................................................................................80
Naturalistische validiteit..................................................................................................................................80
Alternatieven op de klassieke experimentele ontwerpen..............................................................................80
Quasi-experimentele ontwerpen....................................................................................................................81
Tijdsreeksontwerp.......................................................................................................................................81
Niet-equivalent ontwerp met vergelijkingsgroep.......................................................................................81
Afzonderlijke steekproef ontwerp met voor- en nameting.........................................................................82
Pre-experimentele ontwerpen........................................................................................................................82
Groep met alleen nameting........................................................................................................................82
Groep met voor- en nameting.....................................................................................................................82
Bestaande groepen met alleen nametingen...............................................................................................83
Ethische bekommernissen............................................................................................................................ 83
Hoofdstuk 9: surveyonderzoek..............................................................................................................84
Stappenplan en foutbronnen....................................................................................................................... 85
Over vragen en antwoorden......................................................................................................................... 86
Ontwerp van vragenlijsten........................................................................................................................... 86
Model van het vraag-antwoordproces............................................................................................................86
Responsfouten- en stijlen................................................................................................................................87
Aanbevelingen vor het opstellen van vragenlijsten........................................................................................88
De keuze voor een surveymodus.................................................................................................................. 88
5
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