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(Quantitative & Qualitative Research Methods 22-23) Class content quali research methods + some notes KUL campus brussels - Bridging year
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODSProf. dr. Peter Teirlinck
TABLE OF CONTENT
PART I. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN ......................................................................................................... 3
PT I-1. The topic of Business research ........................................................................................................... 3
1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2. Key Issues in Business Research .............................................................................................................. 4
1.3. Important terminology ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1. Research Philosophy ................................................................................................................................................................. 4
1.3.2. Research approaches ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
1.3.3. Research choices ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.3.4. Research time horizons ............................................................................................................................................................. 7
1.3.5. Credibility of research findings .................................................................................................................................................. 7
1.3.6. Threats to reliability & validity .................................................................................................................................................. 8
1.4. Summary: the research ‘onion’ ................................................................................................................ 8
PT I-2. Designing Research Studies ............................................................................................................... 9
2.1. Parts of a research project ....................................................................................................................... 9
2.2. Decisions to take ...................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.1. What is the goal of my research? .............................................................................................................................................. 9
2.2.2. What is my specific research question? .................................................................................................................................. 10
PART II. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH SAMPLING ................................................................................................. 12
PT II-1. Parts of a research project .............................................................................................................. 12
1.1. Introduction to sampling ........................................................................................................................ 12
1.2. Probability sampling ............................................................................................................................... 14
1.2.1. Identify a suitable sampling frame based on your research question(s) or objectives (1) ....................................................... 15
1.2.2. Decide on a suitable sample size (2) ........................................................................................................................................ 15
1.2.3. Select the most appropriate sampling technique and select the sample (3) ........................................................................... 16
1.2.4. Check that the sample is representative of the population (4) ............................................................................................... 18
1.3. Non-probability sampling ....................................................................................................................... 18
PART III. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH – PRIMARY DATA ...................................................................................... 24
PT III-1. Qualitative Research Questionnaire .............................................................................................. 24
1.1. Phase 2: Execution ................................................................................................................................. 24
1.2. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 24
1.3. Primary data collection by using Surveys – questionnaires .................................................................. 25
1.3.1. Questionnaire (survey) : Be prepared ..................................................................................................................................... 25
1.3.2. Designing a questionnaire ....................................................................................................................................................... 29
PT III-2. Qualitative Research Primary Data Collection Interview................................................................ 35
1
, 2.1. Primary data collection through Semi-structured & in-depth and group interviews ............................ 35
2.1.1. Recap previous parts ............................................................................................................................................................... 35
2.2. Phase 2: Execution ................................................................................................................................. 35
2.2.1. Closed or structured interview ................................................................................................................................................ 38
2.2.2. Semi-structured interview ....................................................................................................................................................... 38
2.2.3. Free conversation, open interview .......................................................................................................................................... 39
2.2.4. Practical guide ......................................................................................................................................................................... 40
2.2.5. Problems with respondents .................................................................................................................................................... 43
2.2.6. Three quality dimensions ........................................................................................................................................................ 44
2.2.7. Capturing information ............................................................................................................................................................. 46
2.2.8. Length and timing of the interview ......................................................................................................................................... 46
PT III-3. Primary Data Collection Focus Group ............................................................................................ 47
3.1. Recap previous parts .............................................................................................................................. 47
3.2. Phase 2: execution ................................................................................................................................. 47
3.3. Focus group ............................................................................................................................................ 48
3.4. Delphi Method ....................................................................................................................................... 50
3.5. Projective techniques (skip) ................................................................................................................... 51
PT III-4. Primary Data Collection Observation ............................................................................................. 52
4.1. Observation ........................................................................................................................................... 52
PART IV. SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION ....................................................................................................... 53
PART V. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSIS ................................................................................................... 54
2
, PART I. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
PT I-1. THE TOPIC OF BUSINESS RESEARCH
1.1. INTRODUCTION
What is business research?
→ Research refers to:
• Systematic collection of data
• Systematic interpretation of data
• With a clear objective to investigate ‘something’ (i.e. to find out things)
What is business research not?
• Just collecting facts or information with no clear purpose
• Reassembling and reordering facts or information without interpretation
• Term to get your product or idea noticed and respected
The nature of business research:
Understanding research methods helps us to be specific about the research we discuss, and to make sure that
research comes from a valid source and was collected and analysed appropriately
Examples of business problems:
• Which method of training has produced more output – coaching or a group training course?
• How does an organizational or process innovation influence profit margins?
• What is the effect of a new drug on … ?
Goal: Understanding something
Systematic and rigorous data collection:
Think, plan, execute!
Systematic interpretation of the data
Example:
• Will people buy more or less if we increase or decrease the temperature in our stores?
• Is there a relationship between chocolate consumption and winning Nobel prices?
• Why do people eat chocolate?
• Understanding senior consumers’ service encounter preferences
• Why do people work in mines, even though it is dangerous, unhealthy, hard work,…?
! Important remark:
Whatever perspective you take: never forget to put the problem into context:
i.e. identify and critically review relevant literature
3
,1.2. KEY ISSUES IN BUSINESS RESEARCH
Business research is a messy activity
Example: formulating the research topic can be an iterative process and can take a long time
→ brainstorming - Delphi technique – unexpected results…
Perspectives of the researcher underpin the research design
• The research process begins with an interesting thought, idea or unsupported opinion about the world
around us
• But the real starting point is the context of what we already (think we) know about the world
Ethics in business research
• Ethics refer to moral choices affecting decisions and behaviour
• Often arise during the research process
• Can be related to being ‘economical’ with the truth
1.3. IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY
Important topics in business research
• Research philosophy
• Research approaches
• Research choices
• Research time horizons
• Credibility of research findings
1.3.1. RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
Research philosophy →Overarching term that relates to the development of knowledge and the nature of
that knowledge
→The research philosophy you adopt contains important assumptions about the
way in which you view the world and these assumptions underpin your research
strategy and the methods you choose
Three basic dimensions
• Ontology
• Epistemology
• Methodology
4
,Ontological →What is “the reality”?
→How does reality look like?
→Is there a reality external to humans? If yes, what does it look like?
Epistemology →How can we built knowledge about that reality?
→How do we know what we know?
→What “counts” as knowledge, what doesn’t?
→How is the relationship between research and subject?
Methodological →How can the researcher acquire knowledge about his beliefs?
→Is limited by ontological and epistemological viewpoints
Ontology →Relates to the nature of reality.
E.g. deals with the nature of social entities such as organizations. The question is how and if they exist
→Raises questions about the assumptions researchers have about the way the world
operates and the commitment held to particular views
→Objectivism VS Constructionism
▪ Objectivism : States that social entities have an existence,
which is separate from the people in them
▪ Subjectivism : (constructionism)
Says on the contrary that the organization has no independent
reality.
It is ‘constructed’ and only exists in the minds of people who think
about it
Epistemology →Concerns what constitutes acceptable knowledge in a field of study
→Relates to the view of what the researcher considers important in a study
→Refers to the debate about the nature of knowledge: to what extent can we know
something is true?;
Does a phenomenon (e.g. gender discrimination at work) has an objective existence, or is it only
existing in the minds of those who discuss it?
Can we investigate it directly or must we interpret its meaning from what people say about
it?
→Positivism VS Interpretivism principles
▪ Positivism : Only phenomena which we can know through our senses can
really produce ‘knowledge’
▪ Interpretivism = constructionism
: Promotes the idea that subjective thought and ideas are valid
→Two extremes:
5
,Implications → The ontological and epistemological stance of the researcher affect the methodology and
the specific methods chosen for the research
→So it differs whether you believe in objective truth or whether you find all things subjective
→ Be aware that not everyone else thinks about the world in the same way
→Be as objective as possible and recognize when your assumptions and philosophies may
cloud your thinking and try to dispel them for the purpose of research
1.3.2. RESEARCH APPROACHES
Research approaches → The extent to which you are clear about the theory at the beginning of your
research raises an important question concerning the design of your research
project
→Deductive VS inductive approach (in between: abductive approach)
Deductive approach → Begins by looking at theory, produces hypotheses from that theory,
which relate to the focus of research, and then proceeds to test that theory
Inductive approach →Starts by looking at the focus of research (the organisation, a business problem, an
economic issue etc.) and through investigation by various research methods
→Aims to generate theory from the research
Abductive approach →Typically begins with an incomplete set of observations and proceeds to the
likeliest possible explanation for the set.
→Abductive reasoning yields the kind of daily decision-making that does its best
with the information at hand, which often is incomplete.
Inductive versus deductive research approaches
Deductive approach: Inductive approach?
Theory → Results
Theory: “All ducks in the park are brown” Results: Duck 1 is brown, duck 2 is brown,
duck 3 is brown, …, duck n is brown
=> Verification using research results
Theory? All ducks in the park are brown
6
,1.3.3. RESEARCH CHOICES
Qualitative research →A qualitative approach to research is more likely to be associated with an
inductive approach to generating theory,
often using an interpretivist model allowing the existence of multiple subjective
perspectives and constructing knowledge rather than seeking to ‘find’ it in ‘reality’
Quantitative research → A quantitative approach to research is more likely to be associated with a
deductive approach to testing theory,
often using numbers or facts and therefore a positivist or natural science model, and
an objectivist view of the objects studied
1.3.4. RESEARCH TIME HORIZONS
Cross-sectional VS longitudinal:
• Cross-sectional : At a particular point in time
• Longitudinal : Study a ‘subject’ at two or more points in time
1.3.5. CREDIBILITY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
Credibility of research findings:
• Reliability
• Validity
Reliability →another term for consistency or repeatability over time
→Four threats to reliability:
1. Subject or participant error (related to neutrality) / error = systematic (e.g. place – time
related)
2. Subject or participant bias (e.g. related to non-anonymity)
3. Observer error (e.g. related to different ways of conducting research – “subjectivity”)
4. Observer bias (e.g. related to interpretation bias)
7
,Validity →Is concerned with whether the findings are really about what they appear to be about
→Sorts of validity (5)
▪ Face validity : Relates to making sense as a method.
Answers the question ‘why do you want to know that?’
▪ Construct validity : Rhe method must actually measure what you think it
measures (« are concepts clear »)
▪ Internal validity : Relates to how well you can explain the phenomenon
studied
(with your research approach and methods - content validity = coverage)
▪ External validity : Can we generalise the results of our study to other
contexts or situations?
▪ Ecological validity : Relates to whether the act of researching a situation
itself has an effect on that situation
1.3.6. THREATS TO RELIABILITY & VALIDITY
Threats to reliability & validity:
• History : customer opinion after a major ethical issue: e.g. Volkswagen: Dieselgate
• Mortality : participants dropping out of studies
• Maturation : other events happening can have an important effect
• Ambiguity about causal direction
• Interview with manager on sensitive topics (e.g. opinion about restructuration) in the manager’s office
1.4. SUMMARY: THE RESEARCH ‘ONION’
8
,Conclusions: your choice of research strategy or design (1)
• A research design is a grand plan of approach to a research topic
• There is no one right way of conducting business research
• It depends on the research topic, the audience for the research, the time and other resources
available to you, and the kind of study which is considered appropriate for that topic
• There are practical considerations such as access to information and people
• Designing your research and defining a strategy will mean you have considered your views on truth
and knowledge, social entities, what business research can and cannot achieve and how all this will
affect what you actually do to answer a research question
• The underpinning role of philosophy and research strategy guides your choice of research method
(e.g. survey, interview, etc.) and whether they should be quantitative, qualitative or mixed
Choices for business research: theory and reality
→Real Business:
• Cost limitation
• Time limitation
PT I-2. DESIGNING RESEARCH STUDIES
2.1. PARTS OF A RESEARCH PROJECT
Research project parts:
1. Situate theme
→Context, short history, why relevant? – research phylosophy
2. Central research question – research approach
3. Sampling technique and frame
4. Data collection (primary – secondary)
5. Analyses
6. Contribution – Limitations
2.2. DECISIONS TO TAKE
2.2.1. WHAT IS THE GOAL OF MY RESEARCH?
Research goals
Exploratory Explanatory Descriptive Participative
9
, Exploratory research
• Exploring certain themes
• Research themes for which little is known
• Qualitative research’ flexibility allows discovering new aspects
• Often serves as input for other (explanatory, descriptive, participative) studies
Explanatory research
• Causal connections between variables
• Mainly quantitative (e.g. regression analysis),
• Qualitative research is sometimes necessary to better understand the underlying processes
• (see slides 66-67)
Descriptive research
• Analysis and description of unique phenomena
• Case study can be a scientific plus
• E.g. Introduction of online services
• (See slides 70-71)
Participative research
• Often referred to as action research
• Not only about acquiring knowledge, but also about contributing to change
• E.g. Participation in IT-projects
• (see slide 74)
2.2.2. WHAT IS MY SPECIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION ?
From research goal to research question
• A good research question provides direction
• Might evolve during qualitative research
• Research questions are:
o Problem-based
o Theory-based
Qualitative research questions
• Social phenomena, contexts instead of frequencies
o Complete study, description,…
o Relations between participants
• Often start with how, why, when, who,…
o NOT: How many, how strong,…
Examples:
• What is the meaning of the local café in the life of the visitor?
• How do investors perceive and evaluate the banks’ efforts to restore trust in the financial system after the financial crisis?
• Why do people visit a local grocery store, even though products are more expensive than in supermarkets?
• Why don’t people use self-scanning in stores?
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