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PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AQA SUMMARY NOTES
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Covering all A01, A02 and A03 that could possibly come up in your exams! Psychopathology
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Definitions of abnormality Clinical characteristics of Phobias, depression + OCD Behavioural approach to explaining phobias Behavioural approach to treating phobias1. Deviation from social norms: society has Phobias: anxiety disorders characterised by extreme Mowrer 1960 argued that phobias are learned by Systematic desensitisation:
unwritten social rules, and when people violate irrational fears classical conditioning and then maintained by
these unwritten rules and deviate from the social operant conditioning.
norm it could indicate a mental illness. Classical conditioning: therapy aims to gradually
Behavioural: reduce anxiety through counterconditioning.
1. Panic = may involve a range of behaviours such as Two-process model: Phobia is learned so phobic stimulus (conditioned
Abnormality is based on social context: Societies crying, screaming or running away from the phobic 1. the acquisition of the phobia through classical stimulus, CS) produces fear (conditioned response, CR)
and social groups make collective judgements about stimulus. conditioning CS is paired with relaxation, and this becomes the new
correct behaviours in particular judgements. 2. Avoidance = considerable effect to prevent contact 2. the maintenance of the phobia through operant CR
with the phobic stimulus. This can make it hard to go conditioning
about everyday life.
Consequences of behaviour: relatively few behaviours 3. Endurance = an alternative behaviour to avoidance. Reciprocal inhibition: not possible to be afraid and
that would be considered universally abnormal Involves remaining with the phobic stimulus and Classical Conditioning Process: Unconditioned relaxed at the same time, so one emotion prevents the
therefore, definitions are related to cultural context. This continuing to experience anxiety. stimulus is paired with an unconditioned response of other
includes historical differences within the same society. fear. A neutral stimulus produces a neutral response.
For example, homosexuality is viewed as abnormal in Neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned response of
some cultures but not others. Emotional: fear. This becomes a conditioned stimulus which Anxiety hierarchy: Client and therapist design an
1. Anxiety = an unpleasant state of high arousal. produces a conditioned response. Eg Phobia of dogs anxiety hierarchy – fearful stimuli arranged in order
Prevents an individual relaxing and makes it difficult to acquiring by getting bitten by a dog or witnessing from least to most frightening eg a person with
Anti-social personality disorder: failure to conform to experience positive emotion. someone getting bitten. arachnophobia might identify seeing a picture of a small
lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour. In other 2. Fear = the immediate response we experience when spider as low on their anxiety hierarchy and holding a
words, a psychopath is abnormal because they deviate we encounter or think of a phobic stimulus tarantula as the final item.
from social norms or standards. They generally lack 3. Emotional response is unreasonable = Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): being bitten >
empathy. disproportionate to the threat posed Unconditioned Response (UCR): anxiety.
Neutral Stimulus (NS): dog > no response Relaxation is practiced at each level: Person with
UCS + NS: being bitten + dog > UCR: anxiety. phobia is first taught relaxation techniques such as
2. Statistical infrequency: idea that behaviours that Cognitive: Conditioned stimulus (CS): dog > Conditioned deep breathing or meditation. Person then works
are statistically infrequent are seen as abnormal. 1. Selective attention to the phobic stimulus = a person response (CR): anxiety through the anxiety hierarchy; at each level the stimulus
Based on the notion of a normal distribution curve with a phobia finds it hard to look away from the stimulus is exposed in a relaxed state. This takes place over
for all behaviour and those that appear in the 2. Irrational beliefs = phobias may involve beliefs several sessions starting at the bottom of the
extremes eg are statistically infrequent indicate 3. Cognitive distortions = unrealistic thinking Operant Conditioning: behaviour is maintained by hierarchy. Treatment is successful when the person can
mental illness. consequences and therefore reinforced. Negative stay relaxed in high-anxiety situations.
reinforcement = maintain a phobia by avoiding the
Depression: a mood disorder characterised by stimulus and therefore avoiding the negative
IQ and Intellectual disability disorder: IQ is normally feelings of despondency and hopelessness consequences. Eg Phobia is maintained by avoiding Flooding:
distributed. The average IQ is 100, most people have 1.Unipolar Depression: someone who constantly in situations where dogs are present is negatively
an IQ between 85 and 115. Only 2% have a score a sad mood who has delusions and social reinforcing.
below 70. Those individuals scoring below 70 are impairments resulting in severely reduced quality of Immediate exposure to the phobic stimulus: Flooding
statistically unusually and are diagnosed with life, made worse by lack of energy and motivation involves exposing a person with a phobia with the
intellectually disability disorder. Also an example of 2.Bipolar Depression: someone who swings phobic object without a gradual build up eg a person
failure to function adequately, signs would of showed. between alternating periods of depression and with arachnophobia may have a large spider crawl over
mania their hand until they can fully relax.
3. Failure to function adequately: when an individual
cannot cope with everyday life. For instance, not Quick learning through extinction: without the option
being able to maintain basic standards of nutrition of avoidance, the person quickly learns that the phobic
or hygiene, hold a job or maintain relationships. Behavioural: object is harmless through the exhaustion of their fear
1. Activity levels = people with depression have reduced response.
energy levels making them lethargic
Rosenhan + Seligman 1969: 2. Disruption to sleep and eating behaviour = reduced
1. Personal distress eg depression sleep (insomnia) or increased (hypersomnia). Appetite Ethical safeguards: Flooding is not unethical but it is an
2. Maladaptiveness eg addictions and weight may increase or decrease. unpleasant experience, so it is important that people
3. Irrationality eg schizophrenia 3. Aggression and self-harm = associated with irritability being treated give informed consent. They must be
4. Unpredictability eg bi-polar and this may extend to aggression and self-harm fully prepared and know what to expect.
5. Unconventionality and statistical rarity eg depression
6. Observed discomfort – families with alchohol
addiction Emotional:
1. Lowered mood = may describe themselves as
worthless or empty
4. Deviation from mental health: looks for signs of 2. Anger = emotions lead to aggression and self-harming
, wellbeing and then identity’s anyone who deviates behaviour
from this scale of normal. 3. Lowered self-esteem = person like themselves less
and may even be self-loathing.
Jahoda’s ideal mental health criteria:
1. We have no symptoms or distress Cognitive:
2. We are rational and perceive ourselves accurately 1. Poor concentration = may find themselves struggling
3. We self-actualise to stick to a task and may find simple decision making
4. We can cope with stress difficult
5. We have a realistic view of the world 2. Attention to the negative = depressed people have a
6. We have good self-esteem and lack guilt bias towards focusing on negative aspects of current
7. We are independent of other people situations and instead recall unhappy memories.
8. We can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure 3. Absolutist thinking = black and white thinking, when a
situation is unfortunate it is seen as an absolute disaster.
Inevitable overlap between definitions: Someone’s
inability to keep a job may be a sign of their failure to
cope with the pressures of work (failure to function). Or
as a deviation from the ideal of successfully working.
Watson and Rayner 1920 Wolpe 1960: flooding was used to remove a phobia of
Two process model = Little Albert + Rats cars. The girl was forced to be driven around in a car for
1. Whenever Albert played with a white rat, a loud noise 4 hours until her fear was eradicated.
was made close to his ear. The noise (UCS) caused a Supports flooding as it shows the effectiveness of the
fear response (UCR). treatment
2. Rat (NS) did not create fear until the bang and the rat
had been paired together several times.
3. Albert showed a fear response (CR) every time he
came into contact with the rat (CS)
Little Albert also showed a fear in response to other
white furry objects including a fur coat and a Santa
Claus beard.
+ Statistical frequency + Real-world application: OCD: anxiety disorder characterised by persistent, + Real-world application: The idea that phobias are + Evidence to support SD: Gilroy et al followed up 42
Statistical infrequency is useful in diagnosis eg recurrent, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive, maintained by avoidance is important in explaining why people who had SD for spider phobia. At follow-up, the
intellectual disability disorder because this requires an ritualistic behaviours. people with phobias benefit from exposure therapies. SD group was less fearful than a control group. In a
IQ in the bottom 2%. It is also helpful in assessing a Once avoidance behaviour is prevented, it ceases to recent review, Wechsler et al (2019) concluded that SD
range of conditions eg the BDI assesses depression be reinforced by the reduction of anxiety. Avoidance is effective for specific phobia, social phobias and
and only 5% score 30+ (indicates severe Behavioural: behaviour therefore declines. This shows the value of agoraphobia. This means that SD is likely to be helpful
depression). This means that statistical infrequency is 1. Repetitive compulsions = actions carried out are the two-process approach because it identifies a means for people with phobias.
useful in diagnostic and assessment procedures. repetitive and in a ritualistic way of treating phobias.
2. Compulsions reduce anxiety = anxiety may be
created from obsessions or just anxiety alone + Usefulness of SD people with learning difficulties:
- Unusual characteristics can also be positive: If very 3. Avoidance = managed by avoiding situations that - Inability to explain cognitive aspects of phobias: Main alternatives to SD are unsuitable for people with
few people display a characteristic, then the behaviour is trigger anxiety Behavioural explanations like the two-process model are learning difficulties eg cognitive therapies require a high
statistically infrequent but doesn’t mean we call them geared towards explaining behaviour – in this case level of rational thought and flooding is distressing. SD
abnormal. IQ scores above 130 are just as unusual as avoidance of the phobic stimulus. However, we know does not require understanding or engagement on a
those below 70, but not regarded as undesirable or Emotional: that phobias also have a significant cognitive cognitive level and is not a traumatic experience. SD
needing treatment. This means that although, statistical 1. Anxiety and distress = obsessive thoughts are component eg beliefs hold irrational belief about the is often the most appropriate treatment for some people.
frequency can be part of defining abnormality, it can unpleasant and frightening and the anxiety that goes phobic stimulus. This means that the two-process model
never be its sole basis. with it can be overwhelming does not fully explain the symptoms of phobias.
2. Depression = low mood and lack of enjoyment SD in virtual reality: The exposure part of SD can be
3. Guilt and disgust = irrational guilt eg over a minor done in virtual reality which avoids dangerous situations
Benefits vs problems: When someone is living a happy moral issue + Evidence to support linking phobias to bad and is cost-effective. However, VR exposure may be
and fulfilled life, there is no benefit to label them as experiences: De Jongh et al found that 73% of dental less effective than real exposure for social phobias as it
abnormal. However, the level of abnormality might carry phobias had experienced a trauma, which is evidence of lacks realism. This means that SD using VR is
a social stigma. This means that labelling someone Cognitive: link between bad experiences and phobias. Further sometimes not always appropriate.
abnormal just because they are statistically unusual is 1. Obsessive thoughts = 90% of people with OCD have support came from the control group with low dental
likely to cause more harm than good. reoccurring obsessive thoughts anxiety, where only 21% had experienced a traumatic
2. Cognitive coping strategies = eg meditation event. This confirms that the association between the + Flooding is cost effective: A therapy is described as
3. Insight into excessive anxiety = awareness that stimulus and an unconditioned response does lead to cost-effective if it is clinically effective and not expensive.
+ Deviation from social norms + Real world thoughts and behaviours are irrational, may have the phobia. Flooding can work in as little as one session. Even
application: Useful in the diagnosis of antisocial catastrophic thoughts and be hypervigilant with a longer session eg 3 hours, this makes flooding
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