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Summary McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory (6th edition): Chapter 8-14
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McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory (6th edition): Chapter 8-148. Media structure and performance: principles and accountability
Three levels of media operation: (1) structure: all matter relating to the media system, including its
form of organization and finance, ownership, form of regulation, infrastructure, distribution facilities
(2) conduct: manner of operation at the organizational level, including methods of selecting and
producing content, editorial decision-making, market policy, relations established with other
agencies, procedures for accountability (3) performance: relates essentially to content (for audience)
Media Freedom as a Principle
Freedom is a condition rather than criterion, of performance, and thus applies primarily to media
structure. Distinction between freedom of media (or press: refers to one main ‘container’, vehicle or
means for enabling publication) and freedom of expression (wider right: refers substance/content of
what is communicated). In law and regulation the safeguarding of freedom transferred from
substance to the means owners of media claim all rights of freedom on grounds of possession the
means of publication. Main benefits of media freedom:
- Systematic and independent public scrutiny of those in power and an adequate supply of
reliable information about their activities (watchdog/critical role of the press)
- Stimulation of an active and informed democratic system and social life
- Opportunities to express ideas, beliefs and views about the world
- Continued renewal and change of culture and society
- Increase in the amount and variety of freedom available
Freedom at the level of structure
Freedom of communication has dual effect: offering wide range of voices and responding to wide-
ranging demand or need certain conditions are needed for benefits of freedom of expression and
publication to be realized: access to channels of expression and opportunities to receive divers kinds
of information. Main structural conditions for effective media freedom:
- Absence of censorship, licensing or other controls by government unhindered right to
publish and disseminate news and opinions and no obligation to publish
- Equal right and possibility for citizens to have access to channels of expression and
publication as well as access as receivers (‘right to communicate’)
- Real independence from excessive control and interference by owners and outside
political or economic interests
- Competitiveness of the system, with limits to media concentration and cross-ownership
- Freedom for news media to obtain information from relevant sources
Potential conflicts and inconsistencies embedded in these requirements:
1. Freedom of public communication can never be absolute; sometimes limits set by private
interests of others or higher collective good of a society
2. Potential conflict of interest between owners/controllers of media channels and those who
want access to channels but have no power (or legal right) to secure it (as sender/receiver)
3. Conditions as stated place control of freedom in hand of those who own media of publication
and do not recognize right to freedom of publication of those who work in the media
4. Imbalance between what communicators want to say and what others want to hear:
freedom of one to send may not coincide with freedom of another to choose
5. May be necessary for government/public power to intervene in media structure to secure
some freedoms that are not delivered by the unfettered system (setting up public
broadcasting or regulating ownership)
criteria of freedom in media structure and performance: Freedom principle
Structural conditions:
, Independence of channels Access to channels Diversity of contents
Leading to performance values of:
Reliability; critical stance; originality Choice; change; relevance
Journalism: no conformist + marked by diversity of opinion and information; investigate and
watchdog role on behalf of public; no propaganda instrument
Free media system is characterized by innovation and independence; offend powerful, express
controversial views and deviate from convention and commonplace
Media Equality at the level of structure
Should lead to different/opposed interest in society having more or less the same MM access
opportunities to send and receive. Institution of public broadcasting to realise this. Public policy can
also limit media monopoly an provide support for competing media. Equality supports policies of
universal provision in broadcasting and telecommunication and sharing out the costs of basic services
+ normal principles of free market should operate freely, fairly and transparently
Equality at the level of performance
No special favour given by the media to power holders and access to media should be given to
contenders for office and oppositional/deviant opinions, perspectives or claims as well as established
positions. Calls for absence of discrimination/bias in the amount and kind of access available to
senders or receivers, as far as practicable. Chances of media equality depend on level of social and
economic development of a society and capacity of its media system high economic welfare nor
extensive system is a sufficient condition of equality (example US: society values freedom of
opportunity over economic and social equality)
Media diversity as a Principle
Underpins normal processes of progressive change in society; includes periodic replacement of ruling
elites, circulation of power and office, and the countervailing power of different interests which
pluralistic forms of democracy. The more, and the more different, channels of public communication
there are, carrying maximum variety of (changing) content to greatest variety of audiences, the
better. Empty of value direction/prescription about what should be communicated. Benefits:
- Opening the way for social and cultural change, especially where it takes the form of
giving access to new, powerless or marginal voices
- Providing a check on misuse of freedom (where free market ownership concentration)
- Enabling minorities to maintain their separate existence in a larger society
, - Limiting social conflicts by increasing chances of understanding between potentially
opposed groups and interests
- Adding generally to the richness and variety of cultural and social life
- Maximizing the benefits of the ‘free marketplace of ideas’
Diversity at level of structure
As equal treatment (1) literal equality on offer (everyone same on level of provision + chances for
access as senders; (2) fairness (fair/appropriate allocation of access and treatment; proportional
representation of what is relevant in society/reflect varying distribution of audience
demand/interest). Other basic variable is having separate channels for different interests (external
diversity) or having different voices represented within same channel (internal diversity)
Diversity at level of performance
Content should match overall the information communication and cultural needs of the society;
reflection of social and cultural differences; equal access to all voices; and wide choice for
consumers. Main criteria for measuring diversity:
- Media should reflect in their structure and content the various social, economic and
cultural realities of the societies (and communities) in proportional way
- Media should offer equal chances of access to voices of various social and cultural
minorities that make up society
- Media as platform for different interests and points of view in a society or community
- Media should offer relevant choices of content at one point in time and also variety over
time corresponding to the needs and interests of their audiences
Inconsistencies and problems: degree of diversity possible is limited by media channel capacity and
editorial selections. The more that media are proportionally reflective of society, the more likely that
minorities will be effectively excluded from MM; catering for dominant groups and consistent
expectations and tastes in MM limits chance to offer wide choice/change. However, diversity of a
structure can compensate for lack of diversity in dominant channels.
Keep in mind that diversity is not necessarily of value. Naïve pluralism = too much diversity can be
dysfunctional for public sphere when it leads to social fragmentation.
Truth and Information Quality
Shared interest (sometimes necessity) in having access to ‘knowledge’ (information) that can be
depended on (reliability) from trusted sources, that matches the reality of experience, and is relevant
and useful in various applications. Benefits of information quality (media truth)
- Contributing to an informed society and a skilled workforce
- Providing the basis for democratic decision-making (informed and critical electorate)
- Guarding against propaganda and irrational appeals
- Warming against risks + meeting everyday needs of the public for information
Objectivity concept: particular form of media practice and a particular attitude to the task of
information collection, processing and dissemination. (1) adoption of a position of detachment and
neutrality towards objects of reporting (2) effort to avoid partisanshipt (not taking sides in matters of
dispute or showing bias (3) strict attachment to accuracy and other truth criteria (relevance and
completeness). Presumes lack of ulterior motive or service to third party. Helps increase public
credence and trust in information and opinions which the media offer; gives news product higher and
wider market value (for media themselves).
Framework for objectivity research and theory:
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