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Samenvatting Kwantitatieve onderzoeksmethodes kom - Kwantitatieve onderzoeksmethoden
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InhoudsopgaveKwantitatieve onderzoeksmethoden ............................................................................................. 6
1 Vooraf .................................................................................................................................. 6
2 Inleiding: wat is kwantitatief onderzoek? ............................................................................... 6
2.1 Kennis, kennis kennis .......................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Kwantitatief, kwalitatief of mixed methods? .......................................................................... 6
3 De kwantitatieve onderzoekscyclus ...................................................................................... 7
3.1 Inleiding ............................................................................................................................. 7
3.2 Een start in de wetenschapsfilosofie .................................................................................... 7
3.2.1 Van Wiener Kreis naar Popper .......................................................................................... 7
3.2.2 Van Kuhn naar Lakatos..................................................................................................... 7
3.3 Wetenschapsfilosofische uitbreidingen in de sociale wetenschappen ................................... 9
3.3.1 Naturalisme of post-positivisme....................................................................................... 9
3.3.2 Constructivisme .............................................................................................................. 9
3.3.3 Kritische theorie .............................................................................................................. 9
3.3.4 Pragmatisme ................................................................................................................. 10
3.3.5 Postmodernisme ........................................................................................................... 10
3.3.6 Een besluitend overzicht ................................................................................................ 10
3.4 Van filosofie naar praktijk: onderzoeksmethodologie ............................................................11
3.4.1 De eeuwige dichotomie en de derde weg ........................................................................ 11
3.4.2 Theorie vs praktijk gericht onderzoek .............................................................................. 12
3.5 De rol van theorie in het sociaalwetenschappelijk onderzoek ...............................................12
3.5.1 Naar een definitie van “theorie”...................................................................................... 12
3.5.2 Inductie, deductie, abductie .......................................................................................... 13
3.6 De kwantitatieve onderzoekscyclus ....................................................................................15
3.7 Het onderzoeksplan ...........................................................................................................15
3.7.1 Inleiding ........................................................................................................................ 15
3.7.2 De probleemformulering (probleemstelling) ................................................................... 16
3.7.3 De literatuurstudie (theorie) ............................................................................................... 17
3.7.3 Het onderzoeksdesign en dataverzameling (empirie) ....................................................... 17
4 Wetenschappelijke integriteit en ethiek in onderzoek ........................................................... 18
4.1 Ethiek en wetenschappelijke integriteit als grondslag van je onderzoek .................................18
4.2 Een langzame ontwikkeling naar ethisch bewustzijn in onderzoek.........................................18
4.2.1 Ethiek en hoe het soms misloopt in onderzoek ................................................................ 18
4.2.2 Enkele centrale begrippen.............................................................................................. 19
4.2.3 Nationale en internationale codes van wetenschappelijke integriteit................................ 19
4.2.4 Etische codes en etische commissies ............................................................................ 20
4.3 Belangrijkste principes van wetenschappelijke integriteit .....................................................20
4.3.1 FFP – de centrale principes van wetenschappelijke integriteit .......................................... 20
4.3.2 Een ruimer kader aan basisprincipes .............................................................................. 20
4.4 Belangrijkste ethische principes van wetenschappelijk onderzoek ........................................21
4.4.1 Procedurele ethiek ........................................................................................................ 21
4.4.2 Andere ethische aandachtspunten ................................................................................. 23
1
, 4.5 Checklist van Neuman .......................................................................................................23
5 Grondvormen, onderzoekstypen & research designs ............................................................. 24
5.1 Inleiding ............................................................................................................................24
5.2 Grondvormen: beschrijvend, verkennend en toetsend onderzoek .........................................24
5.3 Functionele en causale relaties ..........................................................................................24
5.4 Onderzoekstype georiënteerd op verstehen, patroondiscriptie en systeemanalyse ................25
5.4.1 De typoligische analyse: ideaaltypologie en empirische typologie .................................... 25
5.4.2 De cultuursociologische en historisch-sociologische benadering .................................... 26
5.4.3 De formele systeemanalyse ........................................................................................... 26
5.5 Onderzoekstypen georiënteerd op het vaststellen van causaliteit .........................................27
5.5.1 Het zuiver experiment .................................................................................................... 28
5.5.2 Quasi-experimentele designs......................................................................................... 32
5.5.3 De panelstudie .............................................................................................................. 33
6 Surveys opzetten en uitvoeren ............................................................................................. 35
6.1 Wat is een survey? .............................................................................................................35
6.2 Soorten surveys .................................................................................................................35
6.2.1 Wie wordt in de survey bevraagt?.................................................................................... 35
6.2.2 Wat is het onderwerp? ................................................................................................... 36
6.2.3 Door wie wordt de survey gedaan? ................................................................................. 36
6.2.4 Hoe wordt de survey afgenomen? ................................................................................... 37
6.2.5 Wanneer wordt de survey afgenomen? ........................................................................... 37
6.2.6 Waar (geografisch) slaagt de survey op? ......................................................................... 39
6.2.7 Waarom wordt de survey afgenomen (waar dient de survey voor?) ................................... 39
6.3 Surveys voorbereiden .........................................................................................................39
6.3.1 De ontwerpfase ............................................................................................................. 39
6.3.2 De pilootstudie .............................................................................................................. 40
6.3.3 Het defnitieve veldwerk.................................................................................................. 40
6.4 Dataverzamelingsmethoden ...............................................................................................40
6.5 Deelname waarborgen en verhogen (social exchange theory ................................................40
6.5.1 Theorieën over deelname aan surveys ............................................................................ 41
6.5.2 Survey deelname 1: verhoog de voordelen ...................................................................... 42
6.5.3 Survey deelname 2: beperkt de nadelen ......................................................................... 42
6.5.4 Survey deelname 3: verhoog het vertrouwen ................................................................... 43
6.5.5 De kwestie van incentives .............................................................................................. 43
6.6 Postenquêtes ....................................................................................................................44
6.7 Webenquêtes ....................................................................................................................44
6.8 Face-to-face interviews ......................................................................................................45
7 Steekproeftechnieken, representativiteit en bias .................................................................. 46
7.1 Kernbegrippen ...................................................................................................................46
7.1.1 Validiteit en betrouwbaarheid ........................................................................................ 46
7.2 Bronnen van bias ...............................................................................................................46
7.2.1 Onderzoekebecten ........................................................................................................ 46
7.2.2 Instrumentebecten........................................................................................................ 46
7.2.4 Onderzoekerebecten ..................................................................................................... 47
7.2.5 Interacties tussen voorgaande ebecten en modellen van interviewprocessen .................. 48
7.3 Bronnen van bias: total survey error approach .....................................................................48
2
, 7.4 Bias bij niet-experimentele observatie methoden: observatiemethoden zonder
onderzoeksstimulus (‘unobtrusive’) .................................................................................................49
7.4.1 Analyse van documentaire bronnen ............................................................................... 49
7.4.2 Voor- en nadelen van documentenanalyse...................................................................... 50
7.5 Bias bij niet-experimentele observatiemethoden: bevragingsmethoden (obtrusive) ...............50
7.5.1 Extensieve bevragingsmethoden: gestructureerde interviews .......................................... 50
7.5.2 ‘Face-to-face’ interviews................................................................................................ 51
7.5.3 De klassikale of groepsenquête ...................................................................................... 51
7.5.4 De schriftelijke of postenquête ....................................................................................... 51
7.5.5 Telefoon en websurveys ................................................................................................. 51
7.5.6 Combinaties vs nepvormen............................................................................................ 51
7.6 Steekproeftechnieken ........................................................................................................51
7.6.1 Representativiteit en selectiviteit.................................................................................... 51
7.6.2 Enkelvoudige aselecte steekproef (simple random sampling) .......................................... 52
7.6.4 Bloksteekproeven (cluster sampling) .............................................................................. 54
7.6.5 Quota steekproeven ...................................................................................................... 54
7.6.6 Random dailing, random walk ........................................................................................ 54
7.6.7 Steekproefomvang, precisie en significantie ................................................................... 54
7.7 Non-response indicatoren en validatie ................................................................................56
7.7.1 Non-response indicatoren ............................................................................................. 56
7.7.2 Surveyvalidering: soms slecht nieuws ............................................................................ 57
7.7.3 Ontwijkende antwoorden en vergelijkbaarheid ................................................................ 57
8 Operationaliseren ............................................................................................................... 58
8.1 Inleiding ............................................................................................................................58
8.2 Concepten ........................................................................................................................58
8.2.1 Onderdelen van een concept ......................................................................................... 59
8.2.2 Abstractieladder van de Vaus ......................................................................................... 59
8.3 Operationaliseren ..............................................................................................................60
8.3.1 Een indeling van concepten ........................................................................................... 60
8.3.2 Stapsgewijs operationaliseren........................................................................................ 61
8.3.3 Aandachtspunten bij operationaliseren .......................................................................... 61
9 Kwantitatieve meetinstrumenten ......................................................................................... 63
9.1 Inleiding: van operationaliseren naar meten ........................................................................63
9.2 Indexen .............................................................................................................................63
9.2.1 Wat is een index? ........................................................................................................... 63
9.2.2 Indexen opstellen .......................................................................................................... 63
9.3 Schalen .............................................................................................................................64
9.3.1 Wat is een schaal? ......................................................................................................... 64
9.3.2 De Thurstoneschaal....................................................................................................... 64
9.3.3 De Likert schaal ............................................................................................................. 65
9.3.4 De Guttman-schaal ....................................................................................................... 65
9.3.5 De Mokken schaal ......................................................................................................... 67
9.4 Vignetten ...........................................................................................................................68
9.4.1 Experimenteel design: experiment in survey – Factorial Survey experiment....................... 68
9.4.2 Comparatief design: kalibratie van schalen – anchoring vignettes .................................... 69
9.5 Kwaliteit van meetinstrumenten: validiteit en betrouwbaarheid ............................................70
9.5.1 Validiteit........................................................................................................................ 71
9.5.2 Betrouwbaarheid ........................................................................................................... 71
10 Kwantitatieve vragenlijsten .................................................................................................. 73
3
, 10.1 Inleiding ............................................................................................................................73
10.2 Een algemeen kader over vragen stellen ..............................................................................73
10.3 De vraag begrijpen .............................................................................................................73
10.3.1 Eenvoud in vragen stellen .......................................................................................... 73
10.3.2 Een tijdskader ........................................................................................................... 74
10.3.3 Ingesloten assumpties .............................................................................................. 74
10.3.4 Meervoudige vragen en dubbele negaties ................................................................... 74
10.3.5 Leidende vragen ........................................................................................................ 75
10.4 De jusite kennis of informatie hebben..................................................................................75
10.4.2 Het verleden begrapen ..................................................................................................... 76
10.5 Antwoordmogelijkheden kiezen ..........................................................................................76
10.5.1 Taakduidelijk in de vraag ............................................................................................ 76
10.5.2 Problemen met antwoordmogelijkheden .................................................................... 77
10.6 Het accurate antwoord geven .............................................................................................78
10.6.1 Waarom zou men geen antwoord willen geven? .......................................................... 78
10.6.2 Gevoelige vragen ....................................................................................................... 78
10.7 Bijzondere antwoordmogelijkheden in survey-onderzoek .....................................................79
10.7.1 Van open tot gesloten vraag ....................................................................................... 79
10.7.2 Meerdere antwoordmogelijkheden ............................................................................. 80
10.7.3 Gamificatie ............................................................................................................... 80
10.7.4 Routing (skip-logica) .................................................................................................. 80
10.8 Schalen als vraagvorm .......................................................................................................81
10.8.1 Unipolaire of bipolaire schalen .................................................................................. 81
10.8.2 Categorieën in schalen .............................................................................................. 81
10.8.3 Rating of ranking? ...................................................................................................... 84
10.8.4 Semantisch diberentiaal............................................................................................ 85
10.9 Vraagvolgorde....................................................................................................................85
10.9.1 Basisregels ............................................................................................................... 85
10.9.2 Volgorde-ebecten ..................................................................................................... 86
10.9.3 Cognitieve orde-ebecten ........................................................................................... 86
10.9.4 Normatieve orde-ebecten.......................................................................................... 87
10.9.5 Oplossingen.............................................................................................................. 87
11 Vragenlijsten omzetten in data ............................................................................................. 88
11.1 Inleiding ............................................................................................................................88
11.2 Data-invoer........................................................................................................................88
11.3 De opbouw van een database .............................................................................................89
11.3.1 Variabelen (kolommen).............................................................................................. 89
11.3.2 Cases (rijen) .............................................................................................................. 93
11.3.3 Waarden (cellen) ....................................................................................................... 94
11.4 Werken met databases.......................................................................................................95
11.4.1 Relaties tussen databases (RDBMS) ........................................................................... 95
11.4.2 Databases samenvoegen........................................................................................... 97
11.5 Vragen omzetten in variabelen ............................................................................................98
11.6 Het codeboek ....................................................................................................................98
11.7 Documentatie en archivering van data ................................................................................99
11.7.1 Metadata .................................................................................................................. 99
11.7.2 Paradata ................................................................................................................. 100
11.7.3 Nummerieke data ................................................................................................... 100
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