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Research Skills GSS Summary
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Summary Final exam: Social Research Methods - Alan Bryman
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Research Skills Lectures and readingsLecture 1 Readings (CH1, CH2 (18-27 + 35-42)
CH4 85-91 and CH5)
Chapter 1 The nature and process of social research
- Social research: academic research on topics relating to questions
relevant to the social scientific fields, such as sociology, human
geography, social policy, politics, and criminology. It involves research that
draws on the social sciences for conceptual and theoretical inspiration.
Factors that form the context of social research
- Theoretical influences: the theories available shape what topics are
researched and how findings are interpreted. Researchers need to
consider prevailing theories when designing studies
- Existing knowledge: Researchers must be familiar with existing
literature in their field to build upon it and avoid redundancy
- Theoretical approach: Researchers must be familiar with existing
literature in their field to build upon it and avoid redundancy
- Epistemological considerations: debates exist about whether research
should follow a strictly scientific approach or be more open-ended and
sensitive to human qualities
- Ontological views: views on whether social phenomena are fixed or
constantly shaped by social interaction influence research approaches
- Ethical values: ethical principles and institutional frameworks affect what
and how research is conducted, including involvement of research subjects
and ethical review processes
- Purpose of research: some researchers emphasize practical applications
of research, while others focus on advancing knowledge
- Political context: government funding and policies can influence
research priorities and funding decisions
- Researchers background: personal values, experiences, and training
shape research interests, questions, and methodologies employed
Elements of the process of social research
1. Literature review: before starting a research project, it is essential to
review existing literature to understand what is already known about
the topic, the concepts and theories applied, research methods used,
existing controversies, evidence clashes, and key contributors to the
field. This step helps researchers avoid redundancy and ensures their
work contributes to existing knowledge
2. Concepts and theories: concepts are labels used to understand
aspects of the social world, while theories provide frameworks for
understanding phenomena. Concepts help researchers organize their
thoughts and data, and theories guide the research process. The
relationship between concepts, theories, and research can be seen as
either deductive (theory guiding research), abductive (involves a
back-and-forth between theory and data), or inductive (data shaping
theory)
3. Research questions: research questions are fundamental to the
research process as they define what the researcher aims to
investigate. Well-formulated research questions guide literature
searches, research design, data collection, analysis, and writing. They
ensure research stays focused and provides clear contributions
, 4. Sampling cases: social research often involves sampling cases, which
can be people, documents, or other objects of study. Sampling is
necessary due to time and cost constraints. Sampling principles vary
depending on research goals, ranging from representative sampling for
surveys to purposive sampling for case studies
5. Data collection: data collection involves gathering information
relevant to the research questions. Methods can be structured
(questionnaires, structured interviews) or unstructured (participant
observation, semi-structured interviews). Clear research questions
guide data collection to ensure relevance and focus
6. Data analysis: data analysis includes managing, interpreting, and
making sense of collected data. Techniques vary depending on the type
of data (quantitative or qualitative) and research goals. Qualitative
analysis often involves coding, thematic analysis, and interpretation to
identify patterns and themes
7. Writing up: writing up research findings is crucial for dissemination
and scholarly communication. Typical components include an
introduction (outlining research significance and questions), literature
review, research methods, results, discussion (interpreting findings),
and conclusion (reinforcing research significance). Writing conventions
may vary but usually include these key elements
The messiness of social research
- The complex and often unpredictable challenges and obstacles
researchers face during the research process
- Unpredictability: social research is inherently unpredictable, with
unexpected obstacles and challenges often arising
- Complexity: research can become complex due to the interplay of
various factors, making it difficult to anticipate every issue
- Adaptability: the researcher must constantly adapt to changing
circumstances and unforeseen challenges
- Resilience: overcoming setbacks and persisting in the face of difficulties
is essential for successful research
- Sanitized reporting: research reports often gloss over the messy
aspects of the research process, presenting a polished version of findings
Chapter 2 Social Research Strategies
What type of theory?
1. Grand theories: these theories operate at a high level of abstraction
and generality. They aim to explain broad phenomena or patterns in
society. Some examples are structural-functionalism, symbolic
interactionism, critical theory, poststructuralism, and destruction
theory. Grand theories offer overarching frameworks but often provide
few indicators for how to collect empirical evidence or test their
concepts. They are highly abstract and may be challenging g to apply
directly to empirical research
2. Middle-range theories: in contrast to grand theories, middle-range
theories focus on specific aspects or domains of social life. They offer
explanations for observed regularities within limited contexts, such as
juvenile delinquency, racial prejudice, educational attainment, or the
labor process. Examples mentioned are the labeling theory and
Cloward and Ohlin’s differential association theory. Middle-range
theories bridge the gab between grand theories and empirical findings,
providing more specific guidance for empirical research while still
offering theoretical insights
Inductive and deductive theory approaches
,1. Deductive approach
- Researchers start with a theory or hypothesis and then proceed to collect
and analyze data to test or confirm it
- The process begins with formulating a hypothesis based on existing
knowledge, theoretical considerations, or observations
- Researchers then design research methods and collect data to test the
hypothesis
- Data collection methods are often structured to operationalize the
concepts within the hypotheses
- After data collection and analysis, researchers draw conclusions about
whether the data supports or refutes the hypothesis
- The findings are used to confirm, modify, or reject the initial theory or
hypothesis
- This approach is often associated with quantitative research methods and
follows a more linear sequence
2. Inductive approach
- In the inductive approach, researchers start with observations or empirical
data and then proceed to develop theories or generalizations based on
these observations
- The process begins with collecting data without necessarily having a pre-
existing theory or hypothesis
- Researchers analyze the data to identify patterns, themes, or relationships
that emerge from the observations
- From these patterns, researchers develop generalizations or theories that
explain the observed phenomena
- Theories or generalizations are grounded in the data and emerge from the
bottom up, rather than being imposed from a pre-existing framework
- This approach is often associated with qualitative research methods, such
as interviews, observations, or content analysis
Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative research
- Quantitative research: emphasizes the collection and analysis of
numerical data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. It often
follows a deductive research strategy, where researchers start with a
hypothesis and seek to test it through empirical observation and statistical
analysis. It seeks to identify patterns, correlations, or causal relationships
within a population or sample Surveys, experiments, content analysis,
and statistical modeling
- Qualitative research: focuses on exploring and understanding social
phenomena through words, meanings, and interpretations. It involves the
collection and analysis of non-numerical data, such as text, images, or
observations or data, and then developing theories or generalizations
based on patterns or themes that emerge interviews, participant
observation, focus groups, or textual analysis
Values
- Values play a significant role in social research, influencing various stages
such as research design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
Researchers can develop biases or emotional connections with their
subject, impacting their perspective
- Approaches to handling values include acknowledging biases and
assumptions transparently, consciously embracing partiality in research,
and recognizing the compatibility of feminist values with qualitative
research methods
- Objectivity in research is increasingly viewed with skepticism, and ethical
considerations also guide research conduct
, Practical considerations
- Real-world considerations that influence the choice and implementation of
research methods include
- Research question alignment: ensuring that the chosen research
method is appropriate for addressing the research question and objectives
- Feasibility: assessing whether the chosen method can be practically
implemented within resource constraints such as time, budget, and access
to participants
- Topic nature: considering whether the topic being studied requires a
specific methodological approach, such as quantitative methods for
statistical analysis or qualitative methods for in-depth exploration
- Participant characteristics: understanding the characteristics of the
individuals or groups being studied and selecting methods that are
suitable for engaging with them effectively
- Ethical considerations: adhering to ethical guidelines and ensuring that
the chosen methods respect the rights and well-being of research
participants
- Practical constraints: taking into account logical challenges, such as
access to data or research sites, availability of research tools, and the
researcher’s own skills and expertise
Chapter 4 Planning a research project and formulating
research questions
- Researchers that use a very open approach without using a research
question is very risky since it can result in collecting lots of data without a
clear sense of what to observe or what to ask your interviewees
- When doing research we usually start with a broad topic that interests us
(personal experiences, theories we are curious about, things we have read
in research papers, puzzles we want to solve, new things happening in
society, or problems we see around us) (research area)
- When digging into the topic, we often narrow it down to something more
specific to help us focus our research and come up with specific questions
to answer
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