AQA A LEVEL PHILOSOPHY NOTES - MORAL PHILOSOPHY
A* Level Notes which are concise and easy to understand.
Written by a student predicted 4A*, with an offer to study Philosophy & Economics at the LSE.
Very helpful to understand complexed philosophical concepts.
Aristotelian Virtue Ethics Notes
Virtue ethics is concerned with what it means to be a good human first, then good actions will follow (rather than
Utilitarianism & Kantian Deontology which focus on the other way round)
Eudaimonia
- This is the singular end which humans desire for its own sake – self-sufficient.
- This refers to flourishing and to achieve it is to live as best as humans can live (constant state)
Ethics for Aristotle
Split ethics into character (ethikos), purpose (telos), function (ergon), virtue (arete), and flourishing
(eudaimonia)
The function of humans is the ability to reason well (this is what distinguishes us).
The purpose of humans is to flourish.
The way we flourish is by fulfilling our function well (i.e., being guided by the right reasons). To do this we
must develop good virtues (e.g., temperance, or modesty) through habituation.
Similar to knife analogy, the function of a knife is to cut, the purpose is to cut well, and the characteristics of
a sharp blade, sturdy handle, etc, allow this
Differences between happiness and eudaimonia:
- Happiness is a psychological state of mind but eudaimonia is an activity, the activity of living and fulfilling the
full human potential (you don’t just achieve eudaimonia, it is constant)
- Eudaimonia is objective – an objective judgment about their human life and not a statement about their
state of mind (if they’re happy or not)
- Eudaimonia is not easily changeable; it doesn’t just come and go (like happiness does) because it is a holistic
evaluation of a person’s life
What eudaimonia is not
- It also can’t be about wealth alone because eudaimonia is a final end, so can’t be about an instrumental
good (which is used as a means to another good) and money is only useful as a means to an end so cannot
be eudaimonia
- Honour cannot be eudaimonia either as others honour you, what you want to be honoured for (e.g., service)
should contribute to your eudaimonia.
- Virtues alone cannot be eudaimonia because you can have virtues and be inactive (eudaimonia is an active
state) or you can have virtues but suffer lots of misfortune
What eudaimonia is & why eudaimonia is a final end
- It is the most desirable of all things; it is a life we would want for those that we love.
- Everything else we pursue for “its own sake” (pleasure, knowledge, honour, wealth) all also act as a means
to living a good life (eudaimonia). Everything culminates in eudaimonia; for the sake of everything else.
- For Aristotle everything boils down to living a good life, that is never used as a means for something else
- Eudaimonia is good because it’s self-sufficient (desirable by itself) whereas other goods are not final ends
(e.g., knowledge) because they’re not desirable by itself. Nothing can be added to improve eudaimonia.
- Could then talk about why eudaimonia isn’t like happiness: holistic viewpoint of one’s life, constant activity,
and objective statement.
The function argument
- Function (ergon) = distinctive characteristic activity
- The function of a good knife is to cut well
- Virtues (arete) of the object aid its function (e.g., sharpness of a knife allows it to function well)
- Function of humans: living a life guided by/ in accordance with the right reasons (reason specifically to
humans because we are the only rational animals)
, - To achieve eudaimonia for humans the function is fulfilled throughout their lifetime (not just learnt
overnight, for example) – function is well fulfilled
- Everything has a function centred around its distinctive characteristic (e.g., a knife’s function is to cut).
Humans also have a function (to live in accordance with reason). A good thing fulfils its function well.
Therefore, by living virtuously humans can fulfil their function well (guided by the right reasons) and achieve
their purpose (eudaimonia),
- Argument shows that to live a morally good life humans must fulfil their purpose, and to do this we must
function well.
- The soul is our essence; we can use the rational part of the soul to hone the virtues which derive from the
arrational part (desires and emotions).
- P1: Everything has a function which helps it reach its end goal.
P2: Humans’ function is unique: the ability to act in accordance with reason.
P3: A good thing fulfils its function well by exercising certain virtues.
C1: Therefore, a good human life is a flourishing life, guided by the right reason, exercising good virtues.
Why eudaimonia is valid
- Three types of good for humans: mental, bodily, and external (e.g., wealth)
- Eudaimonia is good of the soul so must be good
- Eudaimonia involves virtue, pleasure, and wealth
Objection to eudaimonia
- Surely if it relates to the whole of someone’s life then they only can achieve eudaimonia after death and
perhaps its credibility is less.
- Aristotle solution: although fortune can change, living virtuously stays for longer – a virtuous person deals
with bad luck in the best way and will make it into a good life and therefore good virtue is central for a
eudemonic life
The rational soul in relation to eudaimonia
- Humans can control desires/ emotion (responsive to reason)
- What is good for humans: living in accordance with reason
- The soul is split into rational (reason) and arational (growth and nutrition), with desire and emotion
interlinking the two
- What makes a human different is that our desires are responsive to reason, for example if you want to use
all your money to buy things for yourself, your reason recognises that one should share their wealth with
others
- Humans use calculative (rational soul) to control appetitive soul (good desires)
- Vegetative soul possessed by all three, appetitive soul possessed by animals and humans, rational soul
possessed by humans only
- So human virtues can be split into intellectual virtues (reason) and virtues of character (desire & emotion)
Aristotle’s account of virtues
- Virtue is a desirable character trait which is developed over a long period of time. Virtues contribute to
eudaimonia; they represent our disposition to act.
- Intellectual virtues relate to good reasoning and thinking. Moral virtues relate to using reason to control
desires and emotions.
- Intellectual virtues are virtues we are born with – cultivated through education: taught by instruction and
use rational part of the soul
- Moral virtues are developed through habituation (skill analogy)
- Virtues = a state of character
- State of character refers to how we’re inclined to act in different situations (e.g., intemperate if one gets
drunk often and excessively)
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