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Summary Sociology Sources of data
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Aqa a level sociology theory and methods summary notes for sources of data.
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Carrying out a survey Stratified random sampling Strengths of longitudinal studiesStratified random sampling: They avoid ethical problems, as participation
Decide on a hypothesis (an idea, theory or
question to investigate). Operationalise requires informed consent and the agreement
concepts – put an abstract idea or theory into o The sampling frame is subdivided of those selected. By comparing earlier and
a form that is measurable. Conduct a pilot (stratified) into a number of later data from the same sample, it is possible
study – a small-scale practice survey so that smaller sampling frames based to discover patterns, trends and the causes of
the researcher can highlight any unforeseen on particular characteristics (e.g. change over time. The data is seen as more
problems. gender, social class). valid, as discrepancies can be checked against
o A random sample is then taken previous data.
Sampling Methods from this frame.
Weaknesses of longitudinal studies
Surveys are used to collect primary Quota sampling
quantitative data from large groups of people. It’s difficult to obtain funding for longitudinal
They are usually carried out using structured Quota sampling: studies, as many funding agencies are reluctant to
questionnaires or interviews. make a long-term financial commitment. Samples
are difficult to obtain because of the commitment
o The survey population is required by the participants; participants may also
Generalisability stratified and interviewers then withdraw at any point during the study, reducing
find a quota of people who fit the the sample size. Because people know that they are
Surveys aim to be representative and criteria. being studied, research is likely to fall victim to the
generalisable to wider populations, and not Hawthorne effect.
just the people studied. To do this, sociologists Snowball sampling
collect information from a smaller Questionnaires
representative group, drawn from the whole
Snowball sampling:
survey population. A sample will not be Questionnaires are one of the main tools of
representative if it is too small or if the positivist sociologists, as data from structured
sampling frame (the list of names of all the o Used when a sample of a
questions is easily quantified, so it can be more
those included in the survey population) is not sampling frame is hard to obtain.
o The researcher identifies a small scientifically analysed.
complete.
number of people with desired The imposition problem
Sampling methods characteristics and asks them to
introduce them to other people The key problems/concerns with questionnaires are
who might be willing to the imposition problem and validity. The imposition
Random sampling: cooperate. problem refers to the risk that the researcher might
impose their own views and framework on the
o Every individual in the survey Longitudinal studies people being questioned. The researcher has
population has an equal chance already decided what the important questions are
of being picked out for as part of their research preparation, so only a
A longitudinal study is a form of on-going
investigation. limited number and type of questions are available.
survey. The researcher selects a sample and
then collects data at regular intervals, often
Systematic sampling Validity
over a period of years. Longitudinal studies
can show change over time, such as the 10-
Systematic sampling: year census. Problems of validity arise because people may not
answer the questions honestly. They may give the
o Names are selected from the answer that they think the research expects or
answers that are seen as socially acceptable. They
sampling frame at regular
, Types of questionnaire Open-ended questionnaires Disadvantages
There are a number of different types of
Open-ended questionnaires will still have a There is a high non-response rate – people don’t
questionnaires, all with different strengths and reply. Those who do reply may be unrepresentative
number of pre-set questions but without any
weaknesses. They include: pre-set choice of answers. Open questions of the wider population. For example, they might
allow respondents to write their own answer have a higher level of education or be more
o Structured questionnaires. interested in the topic, thus reducing the validity of
or dictate them to the interviewer.
o Open-ended questionnaires. results. People might not give honest answers for a
number of reasons, such as dishonesty or
o Postal, online and online self- Advantages forgetfulness. There is no way of telling that the
completion questionnaires. right person completes the questionnaire – they
They produce data that is more valid because might have asked someone else to do it.
Structured questionnaires respondents can use their own words to
express what they mean, so the imposition Interviews
These involve a number of pre-set, closed problem is less of an issue. They produce data
questions with the choice of a limited number that are more detailed and in-depth than Interviews are another popular type of research
of multiple-choice answers. Structured structured questions, so they are preferred by method, often preferred by positivists.
questionnaires are the preferred choice of interpretivists. Interviews suffer from problems related to
positivists. validity and interviewer bias.
Disadvantages
Advantages Positivists v interpretivists
Because they produce a wider range of
Positivists see interviews as revealing the attitudes
They are quick and cheap to complete and answers, it is more difficult to classify and and behaviour of people in everyday life.
process. They produce easy to classify quantify the results or to compare them with Interpretivists claim the interviews are artificial
quantitative data. They have high reliability, similar data. The meaning of the answers may situations and only reveal what the interviewee
as they are easy to repeat and check findings. be unclear. wants the interviewer to know.
The data collected may produce new theories
or test existing hypotheses. They enable Postal/mail or online self-completion Interviewer bias
comparisons to be made between different
groups and populations because all people are This kind of questionnaire can be structured or Answers in interviews may be influenced and
answering the same questions. They are unstructured. Responsibility for completing distorted in some way by the presence,
objective because the researcher remains and returning the questionnaire lies with the appearance or behaviour of the interviewer.
detached from and less involved with the respondent. This means that the differences between
respondents. There are a few ethical problems respondents might be the result of interviewer
because people can choose not to answer. Advantages bias, rather than the differences between
people.
Disadvantages They are relatively cheap compared to having to
pay interviewers, particularly when the sample size Types of interview
There may be problems related to literacy, as is large or covers a wide geographical area. A
some people may not be able to read or fully larger representative sample can be obtained. There are two main types of interview, both with
understand the questions. The meaning of the Results can be obtained quickly. People can reply in their own strengths and weaknesses:
questions might be ambiguous or unclear. their own time and can, therefore, think more
Extra questions cannot be added and deeply about their answers. Questions concerning
personal, controversial or embarrassing subjects o Structured/formal interviews.
respondents cannot expand in their answers. o Unstructured/informal interviews.
are more likely to get a better response because
Interpretivists claim that they impose there is no interviewer present. There is no
meanings and frameworks and a choice of
possibility of interviewer bias, so they remain Structured/Formal Interviews
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