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Book Summary History of the Middle East (Bunton & Cleveland)
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Samenvatting Cleveland
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History of the Middle East - Weeks 6 to 12
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History of the Middle East: Weeks 1 - 5
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Book History of the Middle East – Bunton & ClevelandWeek 1 – Chapter 4 – pp. 56-74
Forging A New Synthesis – The Pattern of Reforms, 1789-1849
Period of reorganization of the government and the new educational facilities (military) >
resulted in something much bigger than merely military reforms
Selim III
Objective: not reform, but strengthen and preserve existing Ottoman state (conservative) >
led to increased European presence and reform of the military (nizem-I jedid (=the new
order)). This meant modernization but also critique for the Ottoman empire and its leader
who eventually got deposed (and murdered later) > embassies opened in European cities and
exchange increased, plus new channels opened
Mamluk regime
Oppressive, unstable, and unpopular > worked through network of Mamluk households (no
top administrative body) > resulted in war and dominance/alliance by two rival Mamluk
factions
Then Napoleon came to Egypt in an attempt to undermine the British way to India and hoped
to colonize Egypt (failed). It was also an attempt to impress the Egyptians with the European
technologies/technological power
Muhammad Ali
Traditional warlord but had state-sponsored Europeanization of the military (+institutions)
Ethnically Albanian but appointed as Ottoman governor of Egypt after winning the battle on
filling the gap the French used to have > imperial expansion and internal development
Politically, he wanted independence from the Ottomans:
- Main purpose was to strengthen the army and navy
- He then started making a peasant army (fellahin) and established conscription to
further strengthen the army
- He destroyed obstructing Mamluks but also sent people to Europe to be educated and
trained (printing press came (=less traditional))
- Exploitation of Egyptian resources in order to pay for the military
- Tax-farming system (iltizam)
- Instituted waqf which was a practice that permitted the income from property to be set
aside in perpetuity for charitable purposes such as the upkeep of mosques
- Experimented with new crops (Jumel cotton) + rebuilding irrigation systems to
improve output
- Began program of industrialization (weapons/ships)
- Reorganization of central administration > government became more bureaucratized
A variety of expansionist wars took place, among others in Greece, Syria, Lebanon, and
Anatolia
Ultimately, Muhammad failed and he left a centralized administration with a decent army to
his successor
Another threat the Ottoman government faced was nationalist independence movements by
its European subjects (Greek independence)
Egyptians and Ottomans teamed up against the rebels and had considerable success (Mahmud
II & Muhammad)
Ottomans refused to withdraw from Greece and pissed off Russia, but Russia and Britain
decided a war wouldn’t benefit either (Treaty of Adrianople between Russia and Ottomans)
Mahmud II
Primarily military reformer but had to be cautious due to overthrown Selim III
Janissaries rebelled again and this led to a massacre on the streets and their barracks
,His reforms however weren’t solely based on the military
Caused the empire to be involved in international diplomatic crises
Autonomy of derebeys was curbed
Bureaucracy was reorganized
Attempted to control waqf income
Conclusion
The Ottoman empire was trial and error (losses versus reforms)
Europeanization was influential and those with European knowledge received the highest
positions
After Mahmud’s death, reforms continued
Week 2 – Chapter 5 – pp. 75-94
The Ottoman Empire and Egypt During the Era of the Tanzimat
Reformations were extended into nonmilitary areas by Muhammad Ali & Mahmud II and
European economic penetration intensified (capital investments), but this led to debt and
eventual colonization
The Tanzimat
Period from 1839-1876
Inspiration came from Europeanized Ottoman bureaucrats
Main persons: Rashid Pasha, Ali Pasha, and Fuad Pasha
Ottoman ambassador, minister of FA and used his high position to gain influence
Ali Pasha
Disciple of Rashid, who became Ottoman ambassador to London and grand vizier
Fuad Pasha
Most thoroughly Europeanized of the three (spoke perfect French)
Elements of reform:
- Hatt-I Sharif of Gülhane (administrative reforms promised by sultan: tax, military
conscription, elimination corruption)
- Hatt-I Hümayan (intensification of the first one, repeating principles)
- Aim: secure loyalty of Christian subjects at a time of growing nationalist agitation in
European provinces; create notion of a common Ottoman citizenship (abandon
millets)
- Nationality Law (Reinforced principle that all individuals living within the empire
shared a common citizenship regardless of religion)
- Establishment institutions of higher learning for civilians > good reputation / job
- Elaboration of system of secondary schools (Ministry of Education)
- Putting into effect new legal codes (establishment secular courts called nizame)
Young Ottomans
Incoherent organization sharing certain values which they presented in their newspapers
during Ottoman literary renaissance (disliked bureaucratic absolutism of Ali and Fuad)
They wanted a democratic government by means of selected European models
Ottoman Constitution of 1876
Constitutional governments would be a desirable check on autocracy and provide them (the
elite) with a better opportunity to influence policy
- Reaffirmed equality of all Ottoman subjects
- Had clear evidence of European influence
- Proclamation of Ottomanism
But this was all dissolved and suspended by sultan Abdul Hamid II and inaugurated
autocratic rule
,Ottoman Finances
Empire began to take out European loans > became an impossible burden > bankruptcy
This was solved by the Decree of Muharram (authorization of establishment of Ottoman
Public Debt Administration and pledged to reserve certain state revenues to service the debt)
Diplomacy of Tanzimat
Russia expanded into the Ottoman territory in three ways:
1. By using religious ties with the Greek-O. subjects of the empire to gain influence on
internal affairs
2. By allying itself on the basis of common religious and Slavic cultural bonds
3. By direct warfare against the armies of the Ottoman State
Austria was more cautious
Crimean War happened (1854-1856) due to Russia’s eagerness to gain Ottoman territory and
authority over Orthodox Christian subjects
Emerged over a disagreement that Russia would gain authority over Orthodox Christians >
sultan rejected > Russia sent troops > eventually fought on Russian territory (Crimea) >
ended by Treaty of Paris which readjusted boundaries, demilitarized the Black See, and
withdrawal of Russian troops from the Danube > Russia got angry
Pan-Slavism gained adherents
1877: Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire > Britain threatened because of their
territory in the Middle East
1878: Congress of Berlin to resolve the situation more peacefully > Ottoman empire got
divided up
This all caused AbdulHamid to be generally hostile against Europeans
Greater Syria during the Tanzimat
Mount Lebanon affected: Maronite Christians and Druze (sectarian identities) whose
arrangements were affected by Ibrahim bin Ali > mandatory universal conscription > Greater
Syria returned to Ottoman rule > Maronites expanded commercial activities (rejected by
Druze) > civil war spilling over into Damascus > Ottoman military intervened which failed to
satisfy Europeans > establishment mutasarrifyyah (small political unit)
Recognition to cooperate by locals and officials, which worked out, until adoption of codes of
administrative conduct that took precedence over personal relationships
Ways to maintain the relationship: take advantage of economic opportunities (agriculture by
locals)
Ottoman land code of 1858
- Centralizing measure: increase tax-collecting efficiency
- Protect peasant cultivator by allowing him to register lands thus dealing directly with
the state
- Permitted individuals to purchase and register previously unoccupied state lands
The code lead to increased wealth which meant that the farmer’s children could attend good
schools to subsequently take up high positions in the government in the future
Egypt during the era of Civilian Reform
Abbas lacked skills and commitment to reform
Sa’id was ineffective despite efforts to intensify Egypt’s contacts with Europe
Ali Mubarak was a more influential leader, with administrative, educational, and engineering
skills
Al-Tahtawi found the School of Languages and was an imam
Egypt’s economic development shaped by the European market (plantation economy) and
this caused Egypt to create railway transportation in 1852
Sa’id granted the French the right to build the Suez Canal > lead to Egyptian bankruptcy
More and more Europeans came and also took up high governmental positions
, Isma’il the Magnificent (1863-1879)
Main goal was to complete the Europeanization of Egypt as soon as possible > turn Egypt
into a European country
Founded Dar al-Ulum: retrain graduates of religious schools to become Arabic teachers
He supervised more schools, such as the School of Languages which turned into the Cairo
School of Law and turned female education into a state responsibility
Ali attempted to establish independence through warfare with the Ottomans, Isma’il bribed
and gave them gifts > Egypt granted right to expand army, issue its own currency and
contract foreign loans without the sultan’s approval
He also introduced Mixed Courts due to the increase of foreigners (protection of Egyptians,
based on French legal code)
Then the National Court was founded, and the Egyptian system was dominated by European
judges and lawyers (based on European law and French legal codes)
Isma’il spent more than the cotton industry yielded and thus borrowed a lot from Europe
Issue of the muqabala law, allowing landholders to pay six times their annual land tax in
advance in exchange for being relieved of all future land tax obligations
Eventually, Egypt sold its shares of the Suez Canal Company to Britain to service its debt and
an administration office was set up which resulted in direct European influence in the
Egyptian internal financial affairs > ultimately Isma’il as deposed and Tawfiq was appointed
as the new khedive
The Urabi Revolt (1879-1882)
Issued Law of Liquidation, setting up procedure for making regular annual payments on the
debt > didn’t bring political stability
Then Ahmad Urabi came in the picture who was an Egyptian peasant and colonel in the army
who aimed to protest against European domination of Egyptian affairs > movement > Urabi
was then appointed minister of War after gaining large numbers of supporters (he was a
prisoner and a hero)
They were a double-edged threat: on the one hand UK and FR didn’t believe the Urabi
government would honor their debt payments, and on the other hand, they were worried that
the Urabi movement would restrict their access to the Suez Canal > sent troops, bombed
Alexandria, defeated Urabi > colonized Egypt
Conclusion
Ottoman and Egyptian reforms: dualism > traditional and new institutions (e.g. courts)
Reduced role of ulama due to European influence (French education)
The gap between educated official and the general population widened through Western
influence > fellahin became more neglected and were forced to e.g. join the army, abandon
family, and pay heavy taxes (Egypt + Ottoman empire) > ultimately: colonization of Egypt
Week 2 - Section 1 Chapter 6 – pp. 95-101
Egypt and Iran in the Late Nineteenth Century
Britain: Aden, Bahrain, Muscat, Kuwait, (Egypt > neither colony nor protectorate)
France: Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco
Italy: Tunisia
Russia: parts and bits of Ottoman empire
The British occupation of Egypt
The Cromer Years (1883-1907)
Large economic and political impact
It was occupied for three main reasons: 1) in order to safeguard the vital Suez Canal; 2) to
restore Egypt’s political and financial stability; and 3) to prevent France from occupying it
first > but Britain didn’t want to govern Egyptians
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