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Summary Papers Brand Management 2019
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Summary of all papers for the brand management course 2019. Summarized in such a way that the original papers no longer have to be read.
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Paper 1: conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity by Kevin Lane KellerAbstract:
Consumer-based brand equity = the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the
marketing of the brand. In other words, it involves customers’ reactions to an element of the marketing
mix for the brand in comparison with their reactions to the same marketing mix element attributed to a
fictitiously named or unnamed version of the product or service. Brand equity= when the consumer is
familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory.
Research question = a brand is said to have positive (negative) customer-based brand equity when
consumers react more (less) favorable to an element of the marketing mix for the brand than they do to
the same marketing mix element when it is attributed to a fictitiously named or unnamed version of the
product or service.
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Brand equity is defined in terms of the marketing effects uniquely attributable to the brand. When
certain outcomes results from the marketing of a product or service because of its brand name that
would not occur if the same product or service did not have that name.
Two motivations to study brand equity
- Financial→ to estimate the value of a brand more precisely for accounting purposes (for
example, for a merger, acquisition or divestiture purposes
- Strategic→ to improve marketing productivity. A firm’s most valuable asset for improving
marketing productivity is the knowledge that has been created about the brand in consumers’
minds from the firm’s investment in previous marketing programs.
1. Marketers should take a broad view of marketing activity for a brand and recognize the various
effects it has on brand knowledge, as well as how changes in brand knowledge affect more
traditional outcome measures such as sales.
2. Marketers must realize that the long-term success of all future marketing programs for a brand
is greatly affected by the knowledge about the brand in memory that has been established by
the firm’s short-term marketing effects.
3. (It is critical that managers understand how their marketing programs affect consumer learning
and thus subsequent recall for brand-related information.)
Brand knowledge is defined in terms of two components: brand awareness (relates to brand recall and
recognition performance by consumers) and brand image (refers to the set of associations linked to the
brand that consumers hold in memory)
Brand knowledge
Brand = a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or combination of them which is intended to identify the
goods and services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competitors.
These individual brand components are called ‘brand identities’ and their totality is called ‘the brand’.
Associative network memory model = a set of nodes (stored information) connected by links (that vary
in strength). The strength of association between the activated node and all linked nodes determines
the extent of this ‘spreading activation’ and the particular information that can be retrieved from
memory.
1
,Key question: what properties do the brand node and brand associations have?
Emphasis is placed on the brand name component of the brand identities, defined as ‘that part of a
brand which can be vocalized’ though other components of brand identities (e.g., brand logo or symbol)
are considered also.
Brand awareness
It is related to the strength of the brand node or trace in memory, as reflected by consumers’ ability to
identify the brand under different conditions. In other words, how well do the brand identities serve
their function?
Brand recognition relates to consumers’ ability to confirm prior exposure to the brand when given the
brand as a cue. In other words, requires that consumers correctly discriminate the brand as having been
seen or heard previously.
Brand recall relates to consumers’ ability to retrieve the brand when given the product category, the
needs fulfilled by the category, or some other type of probe as a cue. In other words, brand recall
requires that consumers correctly generate the brand from memory.
Brand awareness plays an important role in consumer decision making for three major reasons.
1. It is important that consumers think of the brand when they think about the product category.
(consideration set)
2. Brand awareness can affect decisions about brands in the consideration set, even if there is
essentially no other brand association.
3. Brand awareness affects consumer decision making by influencing the formation and strength of
brand associations in the brand Image.
Brand image
Perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory. The
favorability, uniqueness, and strength of brand associations are the dimension distinguishing brand
knowledge that play an important role in determining the differential response that makes up brand
equity, especially in high involvement settings.
Types of brand associations
A way to distinguish among brand associations is by their level of abstraction.
1. Attributes→ those descriptive features that characterize a product or service – what a consumer
thinks the product or service is or has and what is involved with its purchase or consumption.
Here, attributes are distinguished according how directly they relate to product or service
performance. Product-related attributes are defined as the ingredients necessary for performing
the product or service function sought by consumers. (relate to a product’s physical composition
or a service’s requirement.) Non-product-related attributes are defined as external aspects of
the product or service that relate to its purchase or consumption. Four main types of
non-product-related attributes 1. Price information; 2. Packaging or product appearance
information; 3. User imagery (i.e., what type of person uses the product or service); 4. Usage
imagery (i.e., where and in what types of situations the product or service is used). For example,
price. User- and usage image attributes can also produce brand personality attributes. Plummer
asserts that one component of brand image is the personality of character of the brand itself.
Brands can be characterized by personality descriptors as youthful, colorful, and gentle. Brand
personality attributes may also reflect emotions or feelings evoked by the brand.
2. Benefits → the personal value consumers attach to the product or service attribute. What the
consumers think the product or service can do for them. Three categories
2
, a. Functional benefits → more intrinsic advantages of the consumption and correspond to
product-related attributes. Often linked to fairly basic motivations such as physiological
and safety needs, and involve a desire for problem removal or avoidance.
b. Experimental benefits → what it feels like to use the product or service and also
correspond the product-related attributes. Satisfy experimental needs such as sensory
pleasure, variety and cognitive simulation.
c. Symbolic benefits → more extrinsic advantage of the consumption and correspond to
non-product related attributes and relates to underlying needs for social approval or
personal expression and outer directed self-esteem. Should be relevant for socially
visible, ‘badge’ products.
3. Brand attitudes → consumers’ overall evaluations of a brand. Often form the basis for consumer
behavior (e.g. brand choice). The expectancy-value model (Fishbein) views attitude as a
multiplicative function of 1. The salient beliefs a consumer has about the product or service and
2. The evaluative judgment of those beliefs.
These associations can vary according to their favorability, strength, and uniqueness
1. Favorability of brand associations → the success of a marketing program is reflected in the
creation of favorable brand associations. Consumers are unlikely to view an attribute or benefit
as very good or bad if they do not also consider it to be very important.
2. Strength of brand associations → the strength depends on how the information enters
consumer memory (encoding) and how it is maintained as part of the brand image (storage).
Strength is a combination of the quantity a person thinks about the information and the quality
of the information. The larger the number of cues linked to a piece of information, the greater
the likelihood that the information can be recalled.
3. Uniqueness of brand associations → the essence of brand positioning is that the brand has a
sustainable competitive advantage or ‘unique selling proposition’ that gives consumers a
compelling reason for buying that particular brand. These differences can be communicated
explicitly or implicitly. They may be based on (non-)product-related attributes or functional.
Experimental, or image benefits.
Shared associations can help to establish category membership and define the scope of
competition with other products and services.
Because the brand is linked to the product category, some product category associations may
become linked to the overall brand.
Interaction among characteristics of brand associations
The level of abstraction and qualitative nature of brand associations should affect their favorability,
strength, and uniqueness. Attitudes formed from direct behavior or experience are more accessible than
attitudes based on information or indirect forms of behavior. Highly accessible brand attitudes are more
likely to be activated spontaneously upon exposure to the brand and guide subsequent brand choices.
3
, Congruence of brand associations
(Congruence is the extent to which a brand associations shares content and meaning with other brand
associations)
The favorability and strength of a brand association can be affected by other brand associations in
memory. The congruence of brand associations should affect 1 how easily an existing association can be
recalled and 2 how easily additional associations can become linked to the brand node in memory
The congruence among brand associations determines the ‘cohesiveness’ of the brand this means the
extent to which the brand image is characterized by associations or subsets of associations that share
meaning.
A diffuse brand image can cause several problems:
1. Consumers may be confused as to the meaning of the brand and, because they do not have as
much information to which new information can be easily related, new associations can be
easily related, new associations may be weaker and possibly less favorably
2. Because any one associations shares little meaning with other associations, brand associations
may be more easily changed by competitive actions.
3. The greater likelihood that consumers will discount or overlook some potentially relevant brand
associations in making brand decisions.
Customer-based brand equity
The goal of this article is facilitate the development of more effective marketing strategies and tactics,
the focus is on brand effects on the individual consumer.
Definition: the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the
brand.
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