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Theories of International Relations Lecture 2Classical realism: Morgenthau’s Six Principles & Balance of Power Theory
Classical realism
- Morgenthau
o He was German immigrant who immigrated into the USA during WWII
o We have to associate him with his historical background (WWII)
o He assumes that history is our best informant in theorizing in international politics.
Today’s Agenda
- Classical realism: A bit of background
- The context in which his theory evolved
- Morgenthau’s Six Principles
- Morgenthau and Balance of Power,
- Definition: What is meant?
- Patterns of Balancing
- Problems with the (patterns) balance of power
“Why does Morgenthau call his theory realism?”
- He takes history as his informant, to describe and subtract information from.
- He wants to provide a realistic account in the sense of what international politics are about and what its
dominant patterns are. Opinion, ideas and wishful thinking are ignored. One needs to look objectively at
international politics. One needs a realistic account/outlook of international politics.
Why realist theory?
- “This theoretical concern with human nature as it actually is, and with the historic processes as they actually
take place, has earned for the theory presented her the name of realism“ (Morgenthau 1973, p. 4).
- He is concerned with human nature at it is and historical processes as they have taken place - This is why it
is realism. One needs to look at how it is and not at how it ought to be.
- Human nature strives for power. This is how states are. That is the true essence. Historically, that is what is a
generalisable pattern that we can say human nature and state conduct.
Background I
- Oldest school of thought in international relations and for a long-time dominant school of thought in
post-World War II era.
o This theory is the way it is and arose at the time as it did. International relations as a discipline did
not emerge at post-WWII
o Based on the experiences of WWII, was there this desire to explain how something like WWII could
have happened. Moreover, it is important to understand what contributed to its outbreak and how
can it can be prevented. This gave rise to classical realism.
- Theory to which other theories reacted (e.g., structural realism, neo-liberal institutionalism or social
constructivism).
o Classical realism is the first theoretical approach that characterises international politics as a
scientific discipline.
o All other international relations theories came sequently, reacted and responded to classical realism.
o They make it more sophisticated, more scientific. They respond to this pessimistic account that there
is more than conflict etc.
o It is a reference point for theorizing in international politics. This has been the only dominant school
of thought till the 1970s.
- Philosophical Roots: Thukydides; Machiavelli, Hobbes.
o It also has philosophical roots, which are not explicitly mentioned in Morgenthau’s writings, but still
traceable.
▪ Machiavelli: Il principe, the power poltics that a leader needs to strive for and needs to be
engage in.
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, ▪ Hobbes - The state of nature, life is short, survival of the fittest only those who are violent
and forceful will survive within the system.
o In International politics we also have a state of anarchy (Morgenthau). A situation in which we don’t
have a world government, which regulates the conduct between states. Every state has to rely upon
itself and is responsible for its own survival and security. This is an important difference between
national and international politics.
▪ Thukydides
Question: “With whom does Morgenthau situate himself with in a discussion?”
- Who is he trying distance his theoretical account from? Morgenthau aims to distance himself from idealists
and utopianists. Ideas that were floating around prior to WWII (idealism/utopianism).
o One proponent of idealism was Wilson, he provided the blueprint for the League of Nations. It was
his ambition as an institution to provide longlasting peace, based on Statesmen’s pledges. Principle
of collective security, the three musquteers. It was based on the assumption that humanbeings were
in essence good. Human nature could change and be improved. Human beings could be taught for
the better. The reason for conflict was the right institutions don’t keep them in check and prevent
them from coming about. There could be an order designed, an institution that could help people be
the best and avoid conflict. Human essence could be improved. Longlasting peace could be
accomplished with the best of the right established institutions. If conflict erupted, there were not
the right institutions.
▪ Response: Realism to this idea. Idealism/Utopianism encouraged wishful thinking and did
not see human beings and statesmen as they were really: power-driven. To this is
juxtaposed. There are a different set of ideas about what human nature is about.
- We live in an imperfect world which are the results of forces in human nature.
- Moral principles can never be realised. It is Utopian that a rational order can be accomplished and lasts.
- We need to look at history to realise that. How human nature works and how international politics as a result
works. One needs to look at history, how international politics and States work. Don’t look at opinion and
ideas, they are not our best informants.
International Relations Theory is always a debate between schools of thought.
“Contest between two schools”
Idealism Realism
Wilson Morgenthau
Believes that „a rational and moral political Imperfect world … is “the result of Forces
order, derived from universally inherent in human nature”.
valid abstract principle can be
achieved“.
Assumes the essential goodness and infinite Inherently “a world of opposing interests
malleability of human nature and of conflict among them…”
Blames “the failure of the social order to Moral principles can bever be fully
Measure up to the rational standards …, realized”.
obsolecent social institutions, etc.
Trusts in education, reform and sporadic use “Appeals to historic precedent Rather than
of force to remedy these defects abstract principles”
Morgenthau: 6 principles, are what international politics are about.
First Principle of Political realism
- “Politics is governed by objective laws that have their roots in human nature”
- If we want to understand international politics and describe it as is and make general statements about it, we
need to look at human nature. Human nature is a nature that is power-driven. Human-nature have a primary
interest in power and that is the general pattern that we can detect when we describe international politics.
2
, - Realist theory, it is not about what we wish politcs to be or what it ought to be, but rather what it is. It is an
objective account of international politics.
- Which laws?
- Realism … must also believe in the possibility of developing a Rational theory that reflects, however,
imperfectly and one-sidedly, these objective laws” (Morgenthau 1976, 4)
- “It believes … in the possibility of distinguishing in politics between truth and opinion - between what is true
objectively and rationally, supported by evidence and illuminated by reason, and what is only subjective
judgement, divorced from the facts as they are and informed by prejudice and wishful thinking"
Second principle of Political realism
- The concept of interest defined in terms of power.
- If we look for the objective laws that drive international politics. The laws, the patterns which are
characteristic of international politics, it is the concept of interest we need to take a look at. The concept of
interest is defined in terms of power.
o Interest = power
o National interest = power
o Wanting power
o Maintaining power
o Wanting more power
➢ This is the essence of politics: the drive for power. That is the dominant power in politics.
- “It [power] sets politics as an autonomous sphere of action and understanding apart from other
spheres, such as Economics …, ethics, aesthetics, or religion” (Morgenthau 1976, 5).
o That is also what sets politics apart from other spheres. We need to focus on the power-drive. Politics
is different from economics, laws, ethics, it works according to different laws. Those laws are
dictated by power. When we realise that and focus on that quest for power then we understand and
can understand objectively international politics. Then we can have an objective theory of
international politics. Then we can see politics as it is.
- Why a rational theory of international politics?
o We should not concern ourselves with or with ideological preferences. That is fatal as a statesman
and a theorist, it is contributes to missing the true essence of international politics.
o A good foreign policy is a policy of rational foreign policy, that is guided by the national interest
and that national interest is power.
o Don’t think about ideas.
o International politics functions according to different laws. It is not that it makes it immoral but it is
an immoral theory. It does not attempt to theorise ethical foreign policy.
- Is power not also a motive?
o It is a material motive to ensure the survival of the state. Morgenthau: You could say that, if you
look at it. However, it is not a choice in that matter, but it is how states work. It is in their nature,
they can’t do anything else than trying to gain power in order to survive.
o Every theory has a bit of normativity in it.
o Theorists were convinced that you can do objective theorizing, and this wouldn’t be overclowded by
our own convictions and morals.
o Realist scholars: We can objectively describe the way things are.
- ‘Armed chair method’ —> Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP)
- “The concept of interest defined power imposes intellectual discipline upon the observer, infuses
Rational order into the subject matter of politics, and thus makes the theoretical understanding of
politics possible” (Morgenthau 1976, 5).
The third principe of Political realism
- Why a Rational theory of international politics?
o To avoid two fallacies:
▪ Concern with motives
▪ Concern with ideological Preferences
- “Political realism considers a Rational Foreign Policy to be a good foreign policy…” (Morgenthau,
1976, 8).
- It is a counter-theory of irrational politics; not an immoral but amoral theory of politics.
3
, - What is fixed and remains characteristic of international politics: National interest is the interest in power.
- What power connotes? What is power?
o Territory, occupying territory.
o Economic power, wealth
o Military power
o Leadership skills
➢ It varies over time, what precisely the elements are that make up this power. That has to be decided
by the state’s leader. Good, rational leaders know what kind of power is in their interest.
➢ Power is everything that establishes and maintains the control over men.
o What that is, that power can vary over time.
➢ Power can contain elements of ideology. But it has to be handled with care. The vision of leaders
can’t be clowded by ideology. They can use ideology to gain power over others.
o Ideology is a dimension of power.
- The key concept of interest defined as power is an objective category that is universally valid.
o But the exact meaning of the concept is not fixed.
- What is fixed is the idea of interest which is” the essence of politics and … unaffected by the circumstances
of time and place” (Morgenthau 1976, 8).
- “Yet the kind of interest determining Political action in a particular period of history depends upon the
Political and cultural context within which foreign policy is formulated” (Morgenthau 1976, 9).
- Power comprises everything that establishes and maintains the cotrol of man over man”.
Fourth principe of Political realism
- Morals and rational tension
- Statesmen have morals and ideas, but they have to be careful that these ideas and morals do not get in the way
of their rational state conduct.
- Prudent foreign policy, saves the national interest, maintains the power of the state and avoids that others gain
power over the state. Let not others fool or blindside you by morals. Use morals yourself in a reasoned way.
Otherwise you risk the survival of your state.
- Quote Lincoln
o A leader might have moral aspirations and ideas, but look where that got us. It is foolish to think that
one could lead the world based upon moral conduct, because human nature does not function in that
way. Human nature strives for power. If you behave morally, you will be taken over by others. That
is how they work and that is also how you are in essence.
- Examples of how morals get in the way:
o Guantanomo bay
▪ You can’t ignore countries which violate human rights. You need to reckon with them. The
fact that they violate human rights does not mean that interaction should be avoided. You
can’t let morals interfer with your rational foreign policy.
- There is always a tensions between the moral Command and the requirements of successful Political
action.
- The only moral rule: prudence = weighing the consequences of alternative Political actions = Supreme
virtue of politics.
- See quote by A. Lincoln, p. 12
- Example?
Fifth principle of Political realism
- We judge other Nations as we judge our own: based on the criterion that they pursue their self-interest
as we do our own.
o Assess principle in light of the Syrian case.
- We judge other nations as we judge our own: based on the criterion that they pursue their self-interest as we
do our own.
o State = Foreign policy leader (they are regarded as one).
o The leader, the foreign policy = the state as an actor.
o A foreign policy leader needs to think of the national interest. What is in the interest of the state
instead of its own personal interests. The survival of the state in its quest for power is a central
aspect/its essence.
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