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Endocrinology Summary
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Summary of the entire Endocrinology course. Includes diagrams. Includes the most important information about all courses by subject.
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Tentamen Endocrinologie,1. Introduction and Recapitulation
1. What are the roles of the endocrine system and the central nervous system?
The endocrine system releases hormones that help control water balance,
metabolism, growth, physical adjustment to the environment, cardiovascular
systems, and reproduction.
The central nervous system also controls the functions of the body and aids in
communication between brain cells, process information, coordinate bodily
functions, metabolism, physical adjustment, and cardiovascular systems. It also
controls and stimulates endocrine systems.
2. Give 2 examples of cooperation between the nervous system and the endocrine
system.
First, the brain relies on hormones produced by the endocrine system to
transmit signals to other tissues regarding metabolism and growth.
Second, the pituitary gland sends messages to the autonomic nervous system,
thereby contributing to the control of blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing.
3. Give some characteristics that the endocrine system and the nervous system have in
common. How do they differ?
Similarities: both systems provide the body with methods to communicate
with internal and external environments in order to coordinate responses.
They both use chemicals to communicate with other cells. They are both
devoted to homeostasis. They are both regulated by negative feedback
mechanisms. There is a very thin line between hormones and
neurotransmitters. Some molecules can function as both (dopamine), and
some cells can secrete both.
Differences: Signal transmission through the nervous system is much faster
than that of the endocrine system.
4. Give an example of how the endocrine system can influence the immune
response.
Estrogen has been shown to regulate immune response by impairing
negative selection of high affinity auto-reactive B cells, modulating B cell
function and leading to Th2 response.
In addition to this, CRH can stimulate cytokine production and
glucocorticoids can block secretion of cytokines.
5. State 4 ways in which cells can communicate with each other. How are these
communication manners named in endocrinology?
- Endocrine function: communication between two cells that are not near each
other; hormone is produced in endocrine cell and is released in the blood; the
hormone leaves the blood to the target and the target cell reacts
, - Autocrine function: cell produces hormone, and that hormone regulates that
cell (the cell itself or similar cells in the same tissues)
- Paracrine function: paracrine cells secrete hormones to other cell types in the
same tissue à helps the cells in a tissue work together
- Neuro-endocrine: nerve cells receive information from other neurons and use
that information to secrete hormones.
- Pheromone function: animals of the same species communicate via scent à
hormones in the air (dogs smell dog pee)
- Allomone function: different species communicate with each other (bees and
flowers)
6. List the hormones secreted by hypothalamic neurons.
• Corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH).
• Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
• Gonadotrophin-inhibiting hormone (GnIH)
• Somatostatin.
• Somatocrinin
• Prolactin-releasing peptide
• Prolactin-inhibiting factor (dopamine)
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH).
7. List the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland.
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Prolactin
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Vasopressin
• Oxytocin
8. Based on their molecular structure, 4 types of hormones can be distinguished. Name
these 4 types. Give an example of each type.
- Protein hormones: insulin
- Steroid hormones: cortisol, aldosteron, oestradiol, testosteron
o Derrivatives of cholesterol
- Amine hormones: melatonin, dopamine, adrenaline
- Eicosanoid hormones: prostaglandin, leukotrines, thromboxanes
9. Describe schematically the steps in the synthesis and release of a protein
hormone.
o DNA is transcription of DNA into mRNA
o mRNA is transferred to cytoplasm
o mRNA is translated by ribosomes to a preprohormone
o the preprohormone is moved into the endoplasmic reticulum
o the signal peptide is removed from the preprohormone, so it becomes a
prohormone
, o the prohormone moves to the golgi apparatus where it is packed in
secretory vesicles (granules)
o enzymes in the vesicles cleave peptide sequences from the prohormone so
it becomes the final hormone
§ can also cause glycosylation or phosphorylation
o after a stimulus, the vesicle moves to the edge of the cell and fuses with the
membrane to secrete the hormone (exocytosis)
10. What is the precursor molecule of the catecholamines and what is the precursor
molecule of the sex hormones?
Tyrosine, an amino acid, is the precursor molecule of the catecholamines.
Cholesterol is the precursor for estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone.
Cholesterol à pregnenolone à progesterone à cortisol / aldosterone
/ testosterone
11. What are the three steps involved in a cell's response to a hormonal
stimulus?
The hormone binds to a receptor in or on the cell. Signal transduction
is activated, other molecules are released because of the binding of
the hormone to the receptor. The final messenger can modulate gene
transcription or another process in the cell.
Protein hormones have to bind to a receptor and activate second
messengers. Steroid hormones can diffuse through the lipid bilayer
and act on receptors within the cell à often leads to increased or
decreased transcription.
12. What does the term “half-life” mean? Is the half-life of peptide hormones and
catecholamines a few seconds/minutes or a few hours? Explain.
Half-life means the time it takes for the substance to lose 50% of its activity.
Peptide hormones and catecholamines have a relatively short half-life of a few
seconds to minutes. Since these hormones are not taken up by the targeted
cells, they could keep going around the body and activating cells while this
stimulation is no longer needed. Therefore, they are broken down relatively
quickly, so the response is controlled.
13. What is the relationship between the binding of a hormone to proteins in the plasma
and the half-life of that hormone.
In general, when a hormone is bound to a plasma protein, the half-life is
increased. Binding to a plasma protein protects the hormone from being broken
down by enzymes in the liver.
14. Make a diagram of the three best known transduction pathways:
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