Summary of all the articles for the course Environment and Society, MAN-BCU2032 for the year 2019/2020. This course is part of the bachelor GPM and the minor Sustainable Challenges.
Environment and Society: Summary of all
mandatory articles 2019/2020 Radboud University
Week 1.
Giddens on the environment (beginning of chapter 5):
Introduction: describes tsunami tragedy in the Indian ocean in Dec. 2004, reminds us that
natural processes are unpredictable and unreliable. Nature is an active force not simply a
passive backdrop to the dramas of social life. The event showed that in a globalized world
events thousands of miles away have a great impact on everyone’s lives (high loss of
westerners). Why should social scientists be involved with earthquakes? The natural and
social worlds are inevitably intertwined.
Nature, the environment and sociology: nature does not have a single meaning but it’s one of
the most complex and difficult words in the English language because its dominate meaning
has changed over time along with the development of societies. Something that is essential to
a being (nature of humans). Nature can be seen as a series of forces that directed the world (in
dark ages explained why things happen or star signs today). 19th century material worlds of
things, the world was full of natural things (animals/mountains). This change was caused by
industrialization and urbanization which led people away from the natural things. Nature was
seen as an obstacle that society had to tame and overcome. Minority of people were not for
taming nature but needed protection. But for both groups nature and society were seen as
separate things. Since 1950s came another term: the environment. This is the external
conditions or surroundings of people, especially those in which they live or work. More
specific in this chapter it’s: all of those non-human natural surroundings within which human
being exist (planet earth).
Sociology and the environment: sociologists need to take interest in our relationship
to the environment in within which we live. (1). Sociology can help understand how
environmental problems are distributed. (2). Sociologist can provide an account of how
patterns of human behavior create pressure on the natural environment. (3) sociology helps us
to evaluate policies and proposals aimed at providing solution for environmental problems.
Sociology founders paid little attention to environmental issues and the natural environment
was taken for granted. Classical theories are problematic at explaining environmental
problems. How should environmental issues be studied sociological?
Social constructionism: investigate how some environmental issues come to be seen
as significant while others are seen as less important or largely ignored. What is the history of
a problem? Who is making the claim (framing)? What do they say about it and how? Etc.
They remind us that all environment problems are in part socially created or constructed by
groups of people. People speak for nature. But it does not ask questions about the seriousness
of issues at hand or how to solve them only who says what (agnostic).
Critical realism: attempts to approach environmental issues in a scientific way which
brings together evidence from across the social and natural sciences in order to understand
better why environmental problems occur (underlying causes of events and problems). They
,accept and debate knowledge and evidence from environmental and natural sciences. Critical
realism takes into account the objective reality of natural objects and environments which
means rethinking sociological theories.
Social constructionism leads in the direction of a Sociology of the environment
(environmental issues from a conventional sociological position). Critical realism leads
towards an environmental sociology (demands revision of existing sociological approaches).
What are environmental issues?: they involve both social relationships and interactions, and
nonhuman natural phenomena. They are hybrid issues of society and the environment. We
discuss different forms of pollution and waste.
Air pollution; is caused by toxic emissions into the atmosphere. Distinction in outdoor
pollution (mainly industrial and automobile) and indoor pollution (households, like cooking
and heating). Started with burning coal until mid-20th century. After that more alternatives
where promoted but main source of air pollution comes from motorized vehicles (focus on
travel alternatives). Air pollution has been linked to a number of health problems but also a
damaging impact on other elements of the ecosystem (acid rain) which is transnational.
Water pollution: waste dumped into rivers and oceans. Access to clean water is
needed for humans and animals alike. More than a billion people lack the access to safe
drinking water. In poor countries bad sanitation leads to pollution while in industrial
countries it are chemicals used in agriculture.
Introduction to Environment and Society (2007) Pretty et al. pp.
1-15
Perspectives on sustainability: First in the form of sustainable development: ‘meeting the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.’ Un conference in Rio had little process because it was not binding but followed by
successes. Grown to different dimensions: A. environmental or ecological: reduce negative
environmental and health externalities, enhance and use local ecosystem resources and
preserve biodiversity. B. economic: environmental services are not prices by markets using it
in unsustainable ways a response is to assign value to environmental goods/services. C.
Social and political: many concerns about the equity of technological change and discussion
about how to govern the environment.
Social perspective on environment and society: how social organization constraints human’s
relationship with nature and how social organizations are shaped by nature. Human behaviour
towards nature can be redirected if social structure changes. Economic growth driven by
technological innovation was the overarching approach to economic development. Human
domination over nature was unproblematic and morally justified. Rise of environmental
movements started in 1960s (with book: Silent spring). Sociologists struggled to understand
social movements because it did not fit in theories. Environmental sociologists criticized
existing theories about humans not having significant impacts on nature, and focused on the
relationship between society and natureà exclusive human construction of life impossible.
Early developments were that of Schnaiberg (see ToP) and more recently on the restraints of
,capitalism by the biological limits. Capitalism is an argued topic within sociology, some say
its destructive and unsustainable on the long run (ToP), whilst others are more optimistic
view in which more technology investments are needed (EM). The state needs to regulate in
EM theory. Organizational forms are social constructs that are subject to change.
Environmental assets and externalities: many economic sectors directly affect many of the
very assets on which they rely for success. Capital implies an asset (should be protected) but
also implies easy measurability and transferability. Five forms of capital: Natural capital
(resources), social capital (norms, values and attitudes), human capital (capability of
individuals based on knowledge, health, skills and nutrition), Physical capital (human-made
material resources), and financial capital (accounting concept). As economic systems shape
the very assets on which they rely for inputs , there are feedback loops from outcomes to
inputs but cannot work if environmental inputs come for free (tragedy of the commons see
governance). Can enhancing economic productivity be accomplished whilst seeking both to
improve the positive side-effects and to eliminate the negative ones?
Valuing the environment: the treatment of environmental assets as natural capital and
associated exercises in measurement, valuation and evaluation are increasingly common in
both academic analysis and policymaking. Several reasons: 1. Without valuations society has
done a poor job managing its stewardship of environmental resources. 2. The environmental
impact of economic development and human interventions in the landscape have been central
to policy of debate. 3. Issues of sustainability have achieved much higher prominence in
public debate in many countries. This has increased interests in how to trade off current
versus future demands on the environment. Other reasons come from specific policymaking
needs: 1. Importance of divergence between social valuation of resources and the incomplete
market valuation, 2. Resources are becoming scarce and public good dimensions of these
resources are becoming more important, 3. Specific valuation methods and estimation
procedures have improved significantly. Response to policymaking itself of limits to current
strategies (command and control, fences and fines). Regulatory approaches needed that are
less costly and more socially efficient. 4 types of ecosystem value: direct use value, indirect
use value, option value (preserving) and non-use value. These approaches are commonly
divided into expressed preference approaches (assign value directly) and revealed preference
approaches (indirectly elicit consumer valuation like travel cost, hedonic pricing that reveal
preferences).
The consumption treadmill: is the biggest challenge to sustainable development with using or
destroying natural resources. This development is starting in poor countries as well within the
ranks of elites and middle classes while the poor lack in basic needs. Belief in technology to
fix our problems but not fast enough to save us, but environmental problem are human
problems. Our happiness is less then it the 1950s because we only strive for happiness but not
actually increase it.
Emerging perspectives on population and the environment: population is already declining in
some rich countries. Changing life styles and increasing wealth will lead to less need and
, desires for many children, leading to a stop in population growth from 2050s. what will
happen when populations decline? Will nature win back ground?
Dualism, separation and connection: many different typologies have been developed. Nature
exists but we socially construct its meaning. Dualism has many dangers like thinking we are
separated from nature, or enclave thinking, and thinking that technology can repair all the
damage. Modernist thinking has lead to this believe. Important is the notion of human
intervention in a nature of which we are part. We are a part, connected and so affecting nature
and land being affected by it.
Sociology and the environment: Sociology was seen as a reality in its own right not to be
explained by biological sciences creating separate development and ignorance towards
nature. 1960s started challenging inequalities and social exclusions. From late 1970 focus on
symbolic meaning and the role of language (agnostic) → constructionism, the progressive
social movements of the early 1960s questioned the role of sociology as separated from
nature and were more oriented towards the role of nature. Next it was a normative
commitment in defence of nature. Two broad sometimes conflicting ways of addressing the
environmental agenda: (1) constructionism (new field with old values of the discipline
looking at relationships and power struggles like framing) also a lot of research in social
movements and its mobilization and organization, Hannigan: assemble and present problem
(see lecture 6) after that contestation about claims. (2) realism; radical political economy
(see risk society, EM and ToP). New paradigm in which human societies are placed in the
web of environmental interactions. The key process is usually modernization. Risk Society
and EM “see ‘modernity’ as a phase in historical development as well as a type of society,
and both subdivide modernity itself into successive developmental phases.” Globalization,
reflexivity and de-traditionalism rendered modernity increasingly inappropriate. New politics
beyond left and right (Giddens and Beck). Second gen EM is different because it has a
broader scope instead of just technology, social agency can bring change and that EM is a
project facing resistance not smoothly. EM is more optimistic than Risk Society and sees the
advancements in modern countries being more ecological efficient. There are a lot of
questions on the policy making around environmental issues, because of interconnections and
side-effects the real issue is whether the system of international environmental agreements
promotes sustainability on balance (see governance).
Don’t need to read the sections that explain the book!
A Guide to Understanding Social Science : Research for
Natural Scientists ~ Katie Moon and Deborah Blackman.
abstract: Conservation problems are mostly seen as sociological problems. This is why
sociological research is so important here. Moon and Blackman made this guide to make the
principles and assumptions used in sociological research understandable for natural
scientist. The three fundamental elements are: Ontology (what exists in the human world
that researchers can acquire knowledge about), epistemology (how knowledge is created)
and philosophical perspective (the orientation that guides the researcher's action).
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