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Summary Philosophy of Science & Methodology Notes
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1. Between Scepticism and Scientism (Introduction chapter, pp. 15-18.)Important concepts
Scientism: Scientism is the belief or ideology that science is the sole or primary
source of knowledge and understanding about the world. It asserts that
scientific methods and principles should be applied to all areas of inquiry,
including philosophy, ethics, and social sciences. Scientism tends to downplay
or reject non-scientific approaches to knowledge, such as religious or
philosophical ones. Critics argue that scientism can be reductionist and
overlook other valuable forms of human understanding.
Scepticism: Scepticism is an attitude of questioning and doubting, particularly
towards claims or beliefs that are presented as absolute truths or certainties.
Sceptics employ critical thinking, evidence evaluation, and logical reasoning to
examine arguments and beliefs. Scepticism does not necessarily imply outright
disbelief but rather a cautious approach to accepting claims, requiring robust
evidence and rational justification.
Post-modernism: Post-modernism is a philosophical and cultural movement
that emerged in the mid-20th century. It challenges traditional notions of
objective truth, absolute values, and grand narratives. Post-modernism
emphasizes the idea that knowledge, truth, and meaning are social constructs
shaped by historical, cultural, and personal contexts. It often critiques
established systems of power, hierarchies, and binary oppositions.
Anything Goes: "Anything goes" is a phrase associated with relativism,
particularly moral relativism. It suggests that there are no objective standards
or universal truths, and all perspectives, beliefs, and actions are equally valid or
acceptable. This concept questions the existence of objective moral values and
implies that ethical judgments are entirely subjective.
Important Individuals
Dolly: Dolly the sheep was the first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell,
and she became a significant milestone in the field of genetics and
biotechnology. Dolly was born on July 5, 1996, in Scotland, and her birth was
announced in 1997. The successful cloning of Dolly demonstrated the
possibility of creating genetically identical animals from differentiated cells,
sparking debates and discussions about the ethical implications and limits of
cloning technology.
, Snuppy: Snuppy, short for Seoul National University puppy, was the world's
first cloned dog. Born on April 24, 2005, in South Korea, Snuppy was an
Afghan hound and was cloned using somatic cell nuclear transfer. The
successful cloning of Snuppy was a notable achievement in the field of
reproductive cloning and contributed to the ongoing discussions about the
ethics and potentials of cloning animals.
Paul Feyerabend: Paul Feyerabend (1924-1994) was an Austrian-born
philosopher of science. He was known for his controversial views and his
critique of scientific rationalism and methodology. Feyerabend argued against
strict methodological rules in science, promoting an anarchistic and pluralistic
approach where multiple perspectives and methodologies could coexist. He
famously coined the phrase "anything goes" to capture his skepticism towards
rigid scientific frameworks and the need for flexibility and openness in
scientific inquiry. His book "Against Method" (1975) is considered a seminal
work in the philosophy of science.
2. Rationalism and empiricism in Antiquity (Chapter 1, pp. 35-43.)
Important Concepts
Peripatetic Axiom: Also known as the Law of Non-Contradiction, the
Peripatetic Axiom is a fundamental principle in Aristotle's philosophy. It states
that "the same attribute cannot at the same time belong and not belong to the
same subject and in the same respect." This axiom forms the basis of logical
reasoning and is essential in establishing consistency and coherence in
thought.
Tabula rasa: Tabula rasa is a Latin term meaning "blank slate." It refers to the
philosophical concept that the human mind is born empty, without any innate
knowledge or preconceived ideas. According to this view, individuals acquire
knowledge and beliefs through experience and sensory perception, gradually
filling their "slate" with information and understanding.
Syllogism: A syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning that consists of two
premises and a conclusion. It follows a specific logical structure in which a
general statement (major premise) and a specific statement (minor premise) are
combined to derive a specific conclusion. Syllogisms are foundational to
Aristotle's logic and provide a method for constructing valid arguments.
, Induction: Induction is a method of reasoning that involves drawing general
conclusions or making predictions based on specific observations or evidence.
It moves from specific instances to broader generalizations. Inductive
reasoning plays a significant role in scientific inquiry, where patterns and
regularities observed in specific cases are used to establish broader principles
or theories.
Deduction: Deduction is a logical reasoning process that moves from general
principles or premises to specific conclusions. It involves applying established
rules or principles to specific cases. Deductive reasoning aims to draw
necessary conclusions based on the given premises and is characterized by the
preservation of truth from the general to the specific.
Nous: In Aristotle's philosophy, "nous" refers to a type of intellect or higher
cognitive faculty that allows humans to grasp universal principles and
understand the fundamental nature of reality. It is associated with intuitive
apprehension and the ability to contemplate abstract ideas without relying
solely on sensory experience.
Four causes doctrine: Aristotle's four causes doctrine provides a framework for
understanding the explanations or reasons behind the existence and nature of
things.
The four causes are:
1. Material cause: The material from which something is made.
2. Formal cause: The specific form or structure that gives something its particular
characteristics.
3. Efficient cause: The agent or force responsible for bringing something into
existence or causing changes.
4. Final cause: The purpose or goal for which something exists or operates.
Induction problem: The induction problem, also known as the problem of
induction, is the philosophical challenge of justifying the process of induction.
It questions the reliability and validity of generalizing from observed instances
to broader principles. The problem lies in establishing the logical or epistemic
grounds for assuming that future instances will conform to past observations.
Logic: Logic is the study of valid reasoning and inference. It provides a
systematic approach to analyzing arguments, identifying fallacies, and
establishing the principles of valid deduction. Aristotle's contributions to logic
were foundational, and he developed a formal system of syllogistic logic that
has greatly influenced the field.
, Important Individual
Aristotle (384 – 322 BC): Aristotle was a Greek philosopher, scientist, and
polymath who made significant contributions to various fields, including
philosophy, logic, biology, ethics, and politics. He was a student of Plato and
later became the tutor of Alexander the Great. Aristotle's works cover a wide
range of subjects, and his philosophical system, known as Aristotelianism, had
a profound influence on Western thought.
3. Beyond the Pillars of Hercules: A New (Philosophy of) Science
(Chapter 2, pp. 49-67)
Important Concepts:
Ockham's Razor: Ockham's Razor is a principle that suggests selecting the
simplest explanation or hypothesis when faced with competing options. It
promotes the idea of minimizing unnecessary assumptions or complexities in
order to arrive at the most likely or efficient solution.
Parsimony: Parsimony refers to the principle of choosing the simplest and
most economical explanation or theory. It emphasizes avoiding unnecessary
complexities or entities and favoring concise and straightforward explanations.
Medieval Worldview: The medieval worldview refers to the dominant
understanding of the world during the Middle Ages. It was heavily influenced
by Aristotelian and religious ideas, characterized by a geocentric model of the
universe, a hierarchical understanding of nature, and a teleological
interpretation of natural phenomena.
Geocentric versus Heliocentric: Geocentric refers to the belief that Earth is at
the center of the universe, while heliocentric suggests that the Sun is at the
center. The shift from the geocentric worldview to the heliocentric model,
proposed by Copernicus, challenged the established understanding of the
cosmos.
Dogmatic: Dogmatic refers to a rigid adherence to established beliefs or
doctrines, often without questioning or critically examining them. In the
context of the scientific revolution, dogmatism hindered the progress of
scientific inquiry.
Bacon's Idols: Francis Bacon identified four types of biases or errors that he
called the "idols of the mind." These include the idols of the tribe (human
tendencies and limitations), idols of the cave (personal biases), idols of the
marketplace (misuse of language), and idols of the theater (uncritical
acceptance of authority and dogma). Bacon argued that these idols should be
recognized and overcome for the pursuit of objective knowledge.
Scientific Revolution: The scientific revolution refers to a period of intellectual
and cultural transformation in the 16th and 17th centuries. It involved a shift
from traditional and dogmatic views of the natural world to an empirical,
evidence-based approach. This revolution brought about significant
advancements in scientific thought, methodology, and understanding.
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