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Summary Philosophy of Science & Methodology Exam Prep
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Philosophy of Science & Methodology notes including: study questions with answers, important concepts, information on important individuals
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1. Between Scepticism and Scientism (Introduction chapter, pp. 15-18.)Study questions
1. What is meant by scientism and, in scientism, what is meant by science.
Scientism refers to the excessive or unwarranted belief in the power and authority of
science and scientific methods. It is an ideology that asserts that scientific knowledge
and methods are the only valid means of understanding and explaining the world. In
scientism, science is understood as the ultimate source of knowledge, capable of
providing answers to all questions and solving all problems.
2. What do the writers mean by the notion of the mind as a “crooked mirror”?
The notion of the mind as a "crooked mirror" suggests that our perception and
understanding of reality are distorted and influenced by various subjective factors. It
implies that our minds don't provide a perfectly accurate reflection of the external
world but instead introduce biases, preconceptions, and limitations that affect our
interpretation of reality.
3. What is meant by post-modernism? Which concept could be its opposite ‘within
the framework of thinking about science.
Post-modernism is a philosophical and cultural movement that emerged in the mid-
20th century. It challenges traditional notions of objective truth, absolute values, and
grand narratives. Post-modernism emphasizes the idea that knowledge, truth, and
meaning are social constructs shaped by historical, cultural, and personal contexts. It
often critiques established systems of power, hierarchies, and binary oppositions.
Within the framework of thinking about science, an opposite concept to post-
modernism could be realism or scientific realism. Realism holds that there is an
objective reality that exists independently of human perceptions and that science can
discover and describe this reality through empirical investigation and rational analysis.
4. What is meant by scepticism? And what is meant by ‘anything goes’?
Scepticism refers to a questioning and doubting attitude towards knowledge, beliefs,
and claims, particularly those that are presented as absolute or certain. It involves
critically examining and scrutinizing arguments, evidence, and assumptions to
determine their validity or reliability. Sceptics often withhold judgment until sufficient
evidence is provided.
"Anything goes" is a phrase associated with relativism, particularly moral relativism. It
suggests that there are no objective standards or universal truths, and all
,perspectives, beliefs, and actions are equally valid or acceptable. It implies that there
are no boundaries or constraints on what can be considered right or wrong, true or
false.
5. Explain what the debate between scientism and scepticism entails? Give a current
example of this debate.
The debate between scientism and scepticism revolves around the role and limits of
science in understanding the world and acquiring knowledge. Scientism proponents
argue that science is the only reliable and legitimate source of knowledge, while
sceptics emphasize the importance of critical thinking, questioning assumptions, and
considering alternative perspectives.
A current example of this debate could be the discussion around the use of artificial
intelligence (AI) in decision-making processes. Proponents of scientism might argue
that AI algorithms, based on data and statistical models, should be trusted and
followed without question because they provide the most objective and accurate
results. Sceptics, on the other hand, may express concerns about potential biases in
the data, ethical implications of AI decisions, and the need for human judgment and
values in complex decision-making.
6. Which questions are the most important in this book, according to the authors?
7. What do the writers of the book mean by the title: ‘Exploring humans’?
The title "Exploring Humans" suggests that the book aims to delve into the nature of
human beings, their characteristics, behaviors, and experiences. It implies an in-depth
investigation or examination of what it means to be human, potentially exploring
various aspects such as psychology, biology, culture, and society. The book likely
intends to uncover insights and understanding about the complexities and intricacies
of human existence.
8. The book consists of three parts; what are these, and what are they about?
Summarize each part in a sentence.
Important concepts
Scientism: Scientism is the belief or ideology that science is the sole or primary
source of knowledge and understanding about the world. It asserts that
scientific methods and principles should be applied to all areas of inquiry,
including philosophy, ethics, and social sciences. Scientism tends to downplay
or reject non-scientific approaches to knowledge, such as religious or
, philosophical ones. Critics argue that scientism can be reductionist and
overlook other valuable forms of human understanding.
Scepticism: Scepticism is an attitude of questioning and doubting, particularly
towards claims or beliefs that are presented as absolute truths or certainties.
Sceptics employ critical thinking, evidence evaluation, and logical reasoning to
examine arguments and beliefs. Scepticism does not necessarily imply outright
disbelief but rather a cautious approach to accepting claims, requiring robust
evidence and rational justification.
Post-modernism: Post-modernism is a philosophical and cultural movement
that emerged in the mid-20th century. It challenges traditional notions of
objective truth, absolute values, and grand narratives. Post-modernism
emphasizes the idea that knowledge, truth, and meaning are social constructs
shaped by historical, cultural, and personal contexts. It often critiques
established systems of power, hierarchies, and binary oppositions.
Anything Goes: "Anything goes" is a phrase associated with relativism,
particularly moral relativism. It suggests that there are no objective standards
or universal truths, and all perspectives, beliefs, and actions are equally valid or
acceptable. This concept questions the existence of objective moral values and
implies that ethical judgments are entirely subjective.
Important Individuals
Dolly: Dolly the sheep was the first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell,
and she became a significant milestone in the field of genetics and
biotechnology. Dolly was born on July 5, 1996, in Scotland, and her birth was
announced in 1997. The successful cloning of Dolly demonstrated the
possibility of creating genetically identical animals from differentiated cells,
sparking debates and discussions about the ethical implications and limits of
cloning technology.
Snuppy: Snuppy, short for Seoul National University puppy, was the world's
first cloned dog. Born on April 24, 2005, in South Korea, Snuppy was an
Afghan hound and was cloned using somatic cell nuclear transfer. The
successful cloning of Snuppy was a notable achievement in the field of
reproductive cloning and contributed to the ongoing discussions about the
ethics and potentials of cloning animals.
Paul Feyerabend: Paul Feyerabend (1924-1994) was an Austrian-born
philosopher of science. He was known for his controversial views and his
, critique of scientific rationalism and methodology. Feyerabend argued against
strict methodological rules in science, promoting an anarchistic and pluralistic
approach where multiple perspectives and methodologies could coexist. He
famously coined the phrase "anything goes" to capture his skepticism towards
rigid scientific frameworks and the need for flexibility and openness in
scientific inquiry. His book "Against Method" (1975) is considered a seminal
work in the philosophy of science.
2. Rationalism and empiricism in Antiquity (Chapter 1, pp. 35-43.)
Study questions
1. Why can Plato be seen as a rationalist and Aristotle as an empiricist?
Plato can be seen as a rationalist because he believed that knowledge and
understanding come from innate ideas and reason rather than relying solely on
sensory experience. Plato argued that the material world is a mere reflection or
imperfect copy of the ideal realm of Forms, which can only be accessed through
rational thought and contemplation. He considered knowledge as a recollection of
pre-existing truths that the soul has already encountered in a transcendent realm.
Aristotle, on the other hand, can be seen as an empiricist because he emphasized the
importance of sensory experience and observation in acquiring knowledge. Aristotle
believed that knowledge originates from the accumulation and analysis of empirical
data obtained through the senses. He argued that our understanding of the world is
built upon direct observations of the natural world and the processes of induction
and generalization based on those observations.
2. Why can Aristotle also be seen as a rationalist?
Aristotle can also be seen as a rationalist because he recognized the role of reason
and rationality in the acquisition of knowledge. While Aristotle emphasized the
importance of empirical observation, he also believed that reason is necessary to
organize and interpret sensory experiences. Aristotle saw reason as a distinctive
human faculty that enables us to grasp universal principles and make sense of the
data provided by our senses.
3. Is Aristotle a nativist? If yes, how does he express this side of himself? If no, how
does he believe that people are born?
Aristotle is not strictly a nativist. While he recognized that certain capacities or
predispositions may be present at birth, he believed that people are born as blank
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