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Summary A* AQA psychology- issues and debates essay plans
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The colour coded essay plans including both concise and organised A01 and A03 essential for getting an A* at Alevel
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Gender biasGender Bias- is the differential treatment or P- One negative effect of gender bias within psychological research is that it could fuel essentialism.
representation of men and women based on E- Gender bias has validated the concept of “essentialism” which is when gender differences are seen
stereotypes rather than real differences.
to be fixed in nature. For example, Walkerdine reported that in the 1930 scientists proposed that
● Alpha Bias is when psychological theories intellectual activity in women shrinks their ovaries so attending university would risk their chances of
exaggerate differences between men and giving birth.
women. They may enhance or undervalue
members of either sex, most typically women.
E: This is significant because this supposed “biological” fact is extremely socially sensitive for women
○ For example, the sociobiological and could have hindered their progression in the workplace/education if it was left unchallenged, which
theory of sexual selection could lead to a greater financial divide between males and females.
stereotypes women as choosy in L: Therefore, we should avoid gender bias research/theories in psychology.
their partner preferences (using
inter-sexual selection) whilst men
only want short-term relationships.
P- has led to researchers becoming more reflexive
● Beta Bias is the tendency to ignore or E- Dambrin and Lambert studied the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms. They
minimise differences between men and included a reflection on how their own gender-related experiences influenced their reading of events.
women. E- This is significant because reflexivity is important in the development of psychology and increases
○ For example, the fight or flight awareness of how personal biases shape future psychological research. It also then encourages us to
response assumes both men and
women act universally despite challenge these personal biases; only then can the research be considered universal.
research being based only on L- Therefore we should continue to be aware of gender bias in psychological research.
male-particpants. However,
according to Taylor et al, research P- One negative impact of gender bias is that it validates negative stereotypes.
has shown that women’s attention E- For example, premenstrual syndrome is used as a scientific justification which denies women
during stressful situations shift opportunities in the workplace (progressing or gaining a job).
towards tending for their offspring or
befriending other females, which is E- This is significant because gender bias extends beyond a methodological issue but actually
different from men. negatively damages the prospects of women. The research is used as an excuse by employers to
deny women opportunities as they are perceived as irrational and abnormal members of society.
Androcentrism- consequence of beta bias in which the
basis for ‘normal behaviour’ is based on all-male P- One negative impact of gender bias is that it supports institutional sexism.
research and all deviant behaviours (of females) are
considered ‘abnormal’.
E- For example, whilst psychology’s undergraduate intake is mainly of women, the lecturers are most
● For example, PMS explains female anger in likely to be men which means that research is more likely to be undertaken by men which
response to hormones . Whereas Male anger disadvantages female participants (Murphy et al). In NIcolson’s experiment, the male researchers were
is often seen as a rational response to at a much superior position and were thus able to label the female participants as irrational and unable
external pressures. Universality aims to to complete complex tasks.
develop theories that apply to all people which E- This is significant because female concerns are less likely to be heard/ reflected in psychological
may include real differences.
research and questions. The institutionalised structures and methods in psychology thus producing
gender-biased research which hinders the process of universality.
, Culture bias
Culture bias- This refers to a tendency to ignore cultural differences P – One negative impact of not being aware of cultural bias in research can lead to
and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of ones own culture. negative socially sensitive consequences.
E - One of the most infamous examples of the damage that can be created by
Universality - refers to any underlining characteristic of human cultural bias was a US Army IQ tests used just before the first world war. The test
beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of showed that European immigrants fell slightly below white Americans in terms of IQ,
experience and upbringing. and that African-Americans were at the bottom of the school with the lowest mental
age.
• For example, classic social influence studies of conformity
E – This is a weakness as such research could lead to a number of (incorrect)
and obedience, originally conducted with US participants,
negative implications/beliefs developing, individuals may be misled to believe that
revealed very different results, when they were replicated in European immigrants and African Americans are not ‘intelligent’ or as ‘ well
other parts of the world, for example, Kilham and Mann. educated’ as a White Americans. This could lead to pre-existing discrimination
being reinforced, such false findings can be used to prevent African Americans in
Ethnocentrism - this refers to the belief in the superiority of one’s European immigrants from being a sign certain jobs and cookery a false hierarchy
own cultural group. This is when the individual uses their own ethnic in society.
group to evaluate and make judgements about other individuals from L - Therefore, cultural bias issues are being limited within psychology.
other ethnic groups.
• For example, Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation only P- However, research has suggested that the difference between individualist and
studied attachment types on separation anxiety in America collectivist cultures has been over-exaggerated.
(individualistic culture) and left out collectivist cultures. E - For example, Takano and Osaka found that 14 out of 15 studies that compared
USA to Japan found no evidence of the distinction between individualism and
collectivism.
Cultural relativism – this refers to considering the values, practices,
E - This suggests that conducting research on one culture could be could used to
or norms of people in their cultural context. explain and determine universal behaviour as there are no major clear differences
between both types of cultures.
Berry draw the distinction between etic and emic approach L - Therefore suggesting that Culture bias is not a major issue within Psychology.
● Imposed etic – when a observer attempts to generalise
observations from one culture to another. P- One positive impact of being aware of culture bias is that the researchers will be
○ For example, in Ainsworth's research, she studied able to improve the way they conduct their research, thus limiting culture bias.
behaviour within a single culture (America) and then E- For example, the IPC has helped reduce ethnocentrism and lead to greater
assumed her ideal attachment type could be applied appreciation of cultural relativism; such as Afrocentrism which uses an emic
universally. approach that recognises the African context of behvaiours and attitudes and the
● Emic research – studies functions from within or inside uniqueness of different cultures.
E- This is a strength because it has led to us appreciating variations between
certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to
cultures which will lead to psychologists taking an emic approach when conducting
that culture.
their research and ensuring that we are not ethnocentric when developing theories.
L- Therefore culture bias issues are being limited
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