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Deeltentamen 1 ICW - dit kan je!
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DEELTENTAMEN 225/09/23 tot 23/10/23
,H17 The rhetoric (Aristotle)
Aristotle believed truth has a moral superiority that makes it more acceptable than falsehood. But
speakers who neglect the art of rhetoric have only themselves to blame when their hearers choose
falsehood. Sophists were a group of traveling speech teachers in ancient Greece.
Aristotle didn’t agree with Plato (his teachter) about the way speaking was used in Athenian life.
Aristotle doesn’t believe that ethics is a matter of conduct rather than character.
Rhetoric – discovering in each case all possible means of persuasion → the art of discovering ways
to make truth seem more probable to an audience that isn’t completely convinced
Persuasion classification:
1. Courtroom speaking (forensic): judges try to render a just decision about actions that took
place in the past → example: when a judge defended the murderer of George Floyd
2. Ceremonial speaking (epideictic): it heaps praise or blame on another for the benefit of
present-day audiences → when Joe Biden told the nation to wear a mask during COVID-19
3. Political speaking (deliberative): pogingen om wetgevers of kiezers te beïnloeden die het
toekomstige beleid bepalen → Trump had the chance in 2020 to sway undecided voters
Dialectic Rhetoric
One-one-on discussion One person addressing many
Answers general philosophical questions Answers specific, practical questions
Claims certainty Deals with probability
Two available means of persuasion:
Inartistic proofs – external evidence the speaker doesn’t create (facts that already exist)(1)
Artistic proofs – internal proofs that rely on logos, pathos and ethos appeals (2)
1. Logos (logical) – proofs that appeal to listeners’ rationality; lines of argument that seem
reasonable; enthymemes and examples
- Examples are inductive → if an illustration strikes a listener’s response, there seems to
be an evident truth+
- . Examples drawn from the past are more compelling than made-up illustrations,
because most audiences realize the past is a better predictor of the future than
speculative descriptions. But it’s easier to create stories or paint future scenarios than it
is to find historical events
- Enthymeme – an incomplete version of a formal deductive syllogism that is created by
leaving out a premise already accepted by the audience or not drawing the obvious
conclusion → by accepting the premises, the claim of truth deductively follows
Major/general premise (B-C) Alle mensen zijn sterfelijk
Minor/specific premise (A-B) Socrates is een mens
Conclusion (A-C) Socrates is sterfelijk
2. Pathos (emotional) – proofs consisting of feelings and emotions elicited (opgeroepen) by
the speech → Aristotle offered the theory of pathos as a measure that could help a speaker
craft emotional appeals that inspire reasoned civic decision-making
Explanation of the condition Way to make the audience experience emotion
Anger vs Mensen zijn boos als iets in de Herinner hen aan mislukkingen en ze worden bozer,
calmness weg staat van een poging om dus laat ze zien dat de overtreder spijt heeft, lof
in een behoefte te voorzien verdient of grote macht heeft, en ze kalmeren
Friendliness vs Similarity is the key to mutual Pointing out common goals, experiences, attitudes,
enmity warmth desires or a common enemy can create solidarity
Fear vs Angst komt uit een mentaal Schets een beeld van de tragedie en laat zien dat
confidence beeld van een potentiële het optreden ervan waarschijnlijk is, maar beschrijf
ramp het gevaar als onwaarschijnlijk
,Admiration vs Mensen bewonderen rijkdom, Bewondering neemt toe als je levensdoelen laat
envy macht en schoonheid zien door hard werken in plaats van door geluk
3. Ethos – perceived credibility consisting of auditors’ judgment of the speaker’s intelligence,
character and goodwill toward the audience, as these personal characteristics are
revealed throughout the speech → it’s not enough for a speech to contain plausible
arguments, a speaker must seem credible as well and many impressions are formed before
the speaker even begins by the audience → qualities that build high source credibility:
1. Perceived intelligence (competence): audiences judge intelligence by the overlap
between their beliefs and the speaker’s ideas → it has more to do with practical
wisdom (phronesis) and shared values than with a professor’s status
2. Virtuous character (trustworthiness) is the speaker’s image as a good/honest person
3. Goodwill (care) is a positive speaker’s intention toward the audience at heart (by
humour maybe)
Scholars and practitioners synthesize Aristotle’s words into four distinct standards for measuring the
quality of a speaker’s ability and performance:
Canons of rhetoric – the principal divisions of the art of persuasion established by ancient
rhetoricians – inventions, arrangement, style, delivery and memory
1. Invention (construction of an argument) – a speakers ‘hunt’ for arguments that will be
effective in a particular speech → the arguments consist of specialized knowledge about
the subject and general lines of reasoning common to all kinds of speeches
2. Arrangement (ordering of material) → we should avoid complicated schemes of
organization, a standard structure is: first state the subject and after demonstrate it, first the
thesis and then the proof
3. Style (selection of language) → metaphors have clarity, sweetness and strangeness and
they help an audience virtualize and move to action
4. Delivery (technique of presentation) → audiences reject delivery that seems planned or
staged → naturalness is persuasive, artifice just the opposite
5. Memory → good speaker are able to draw upon a collection of ideas and phrases stored in
the mind, but memory seems to be a lost art these days, because with the internet instant
information is available and everything can be rehearsed
Golden mean – the virtue (deugd) of moderation; the virtuous person develops habits that avoid
extremes → this is Aristotle’s believe: he saw wisdom in the person who avoids excess on either side
and goes straight for moderation
Extreme Golden mean Extreme
Lies Truthful statements Brutal honesty
Secrecy Transparency Soul-baring
Cowardice Courage Recklessness
, Aantekeningen WG
LOGOS:
Enthymeem: een logisch argument dat een conclusie bevat en één impliciete (dus ontbrekende)
premisse (veronderstelling)
- The missing premise can be:
- Major premise: a statement of a general or universal nature
- Minor premise: a statement regarding a particular case, related to the subject of the
major premise
Voorbeeld 1: We cannot trust Katie, because she lied last week (1st order enthymeme → major
premise is missing)
- Major premise: people who lie cannot be trusted
- Minor premise: Katie lied
- Conclusion: Katie cannot be trusted
➔ Dit is hetzelfde bij criminelen. Die zijn niet te vertrouwen (conclusie), want criminelen liegen
(minor) en liegende mensen zijn niet te vertrouwen (major)
Voorbeeld 2: Birds can fly, therefore a sparrow can fly (2nd order enthymeme)
- Major premise: birds can fly
- Minor premise: a sparrow is a bird
- Conclusion: a sparrow can fly
Voorbeeld 3: Of course it won’t drown, a herring is a fish
- Major premise: a herring is a fish
- Minor premise: fish won’t drown
- Conclusion: a herring won’t drown
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