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Hoorcollege 10 – 29-11-2017Chapter 17 – Processes and Models of Media Effects
The premise of media effect: all theories assume that there is some kind of effect. Media
have effect, but what is the nature and the extent of the assumed effects?
Four phases in history of media effect research:
1. All-powerful media
a. Started after WW1 more attention
b. Before WW1 campaigning for war (people wanted war in some kind of
way) and patriotic messages
c. Hypodermic needle (inject someone with messages/opinions and people
change their mind)/magic bullet theories
d. Presumed that audience is not active
e. Propaganda: one-sided, biased and unobjective communication. important
theoretical concept.
f. Political and military leaders try to have influence the media landscape, try to
own it.
g. All powerful media paradigm: relation between propaganda/mass media and
effects.
i. trying to understand how persuasion through mass communication
works.
ii. around this time many communication universities appeared.
iii. commercial side also important: trying to find what media to use to
reach the target group.
h. Surveys were developed in this era.
Short term
Immediate
Focus on change
Uniform among the audience
Hypodermic Needle theory / Magic Bullet Theory
1938: fake news Orson Welles. There was nothing wrong, but people thought that the united
states was under attack by Martians. People believed it because it was on the radio.
shows how powerful media is/was.
2. Powerful media put to the test
a. 1930s – 1960s
b. Minimal effects
c. Too much variables Many different variables that influence people
d. Berelson – opponent of the all-powerful media paradigm, he believes in
minimal effects.
e. People are much more critical than all-powerful thought people make up
their own minds
f. Inoculation theory: we are bombarded with messages each day, we are able
to block certain messages and filter out important messages.
g. Two-step flow: opinion leaders tell other people what they think.
, h. Minimal effects theory: effects were over-estimated. Media have effect but
reinforcement effects.
Effects are over-estimated
Minimal effects theory
Opinion leader
3. Powerful media rediscovered
a. 1950s –
b. Evidence of the influence of television
c. Exposure correlates with influence
d. Discussion of WW2 influence
e. Two important reasons:
i. Influence of WW2 Hitler and propaganda etc.
ii. New media like television caused debate huge power over
audiences.
f. More nuance: also
i. long-term effects repeatedly being exposed to the same television
show for example. but difficult to discover/study. What caused this
effect? Can be different factors that can change over time.
ii. Indirect effects
iii. Personal effects
iv. Reinforcement
g. Commission of the freedom of the press (1947): watchdog + fourth estate
how could media check the government social responsibility model: media
landscape needed guidelines, no complete freedom. Based on social
responsibility and not on freedom.
h. Government interference in extreme cases
i. The media should govern themselves (code of ethics)
j. Dominant model in many countries
4. Negotiated media influence
a. 1970s –
b. Social constructionism
c. Spiral of silence (Neuman): created by German scholar looking at WW2.
During WW2, many people disagreed with Hitler, but they were afraid to
speak out because of punishment etc. but also of Social Isolation. No one
dares to speak out people are afraid that they are the only one with that
opinion.
d. People choose to be influenced people choose to use which kind of media
e. Qualitative approach to study these topics but it is very difficult.
f. How to use media to find our place in the world
g. Philosophical era
h. Cultural communication is pre-dominant
Lazersfeld et al: some media have some kind of effect on some people in some times
some communication can have some kind of effect.
Alternative models of effect:
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