AP Psychology: ALL ANSWERS CORRECT LATEST SOLUTION GUARANTEED GRADE A+

Pathway of Vision light -> cornea -> pupil/iris -> lens -> retina -> rods/cons -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells -> optic nerve -> optic chiasm -> occipital lobe Cornea Clear, protective cover on the eye Pupil/iris Controls light entering the eye Lens Focuses light onto retina Fovea Best vision (cones) Rods black/white, dim light Cones Colors, bright light Bipolar cells Connects rods/cones and ganglion cells Ganglion cells opponent-processing occurs here Blind spot The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye Feature detectors Cells that see motion, shapes, lines, etc. and are located in the occipital lobe Opponent processing theory Red/green, blue/yellow, black/white cancel out (after image) Trichromatic theory Red, green, and blue cones (explains color blindness- the cones type is missing) Visual capture Vision wins Stroboscopic movement Motion produced by a rapid succession of slightly varying images (animations) Interposition Overlapping images appear closer Relative size Object farther away is smaller Relative clarity Blurry objects are farther away Texture gradient More textured objects are closer Relative height Object higher up on the page (closer to horizon) and farther away Linear Perspective The longer the lines, the closer they are Retinal disparity image is cast slightly different on each retinal, location of image helps us determine depth Convergence Eyes cross when an object gets closer Top down processing Previous knowledge (whole) -> smaller parts Example: if the letters in a word are mix-matched, as long as the first and last letter are in the same spot, the word can be read correctly Bottom up processing sensory info from stimulus -> whole Example: When you read, you read each letter to make a full word. Auditory pathway Sound -> pinna -> auditory canal -> tympanic membrane (ear drum) -> ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup) -> oval window -> cochlea -> auditory nerve -> temporal lobe Outer ear Pinna and auditory canal Middle ear Tympanic membrane, ossicles Inner ear Cochlea (processes sound first) Place theory location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches) Frequency theory rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches) Conduction deafness Ossicles break (middle ear) and cannot be fixed Nerve deafness listening to music too loud, old age, hereditary (inner ear problems) and can be improved Pain gate control theory Spinal cord gate closed = no pain kinesthetic sense Body position and movement (are you walking in a straight line or bumping into walls?) Vestibular sense Balance (semicircular canals in the inner ear effect this) Gustation Bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory) Olfaction Only sense that does not go through the thalamus (goes through temporal lobe and amygdala) Gestalt Psychology Whole picture Figure ground Objects (figures) are distinct from surroundings (ground) Closure Close the gaps Proximity Groups Similarity Patterns Continuity Flow Conscious Controlled processes and totally aware Preconscious Outside awareness but accessible Example: remembering your first grade teacher's name when you are in 12th grade Subconscious Automatic processing Example: heart rate Unconscious Not within thought; not awake Altered states Produced through tiredness, drugs, or hypnosis Beta waves Awake and alert (you beta be awake for the AP exam) Alpha waves Drowsy Stage 1 of sleep Light sleep (alpha and theta waves) Stage 2 of sleep Deeper sleep but not deepest (theta waves interrupted by bursts of sleep spindles) Stage 3 of sleep Deepest sleep (delta waves) REM sleep Dreaming with beta waves (rapid eye movement, heart rate increases, breathing increases) Sleep cycle 90 minutes long (1 - 2 - 3 - 2 - 1- REM), REM lasts the longest Circadian rhythm 24 hour biological clock controlled by SCN (body temp and sleep, and explains jet lag) Insomnia Difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep due to stress or anxiety Sonambulism Sleep walking (stage 3) due to fatigue, drugs, or alcohol Night terrors Extreme nightmares that wake a child up with bloodcurdling screams (not in REM) Narcolepsy Fall asleep out of nowhere (due to a deficiency in orexin) Sleep Apnea Stop breathing suddenly while asleep (due to obese usually) Freud's unconscious wish fulfillment Dreaming is gratification of unconscious desires and needs Latent content Deeper meaning of dreams Manifest content Surface level meaning of dreams Activation synthesis Brain produces random bursts of energy Benefits of hypnosis Reduce pain and help relax Depressants Decrease sympathetic NS and highly addictive (alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, narcotics) Stimulants Increase sympathetic NS and highly addictive (amphetamines, cocaine, MDMA, caffeine, nicotine) Hallucinogens Causes hallucinations but not extremely addictive (LSD, marijuana) Tolerance Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects Dependence Addicted to a drug to prevent withdrawal symptoms Withdrawal Unpleasant effects of suddenly stopping a drug (can kill you) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Stimulus that causes an unlearned response Unconditioned response (UCR) The unlearned response from a UCS Neutral response (NS) Stimulus that doesn't normally evoke a response Conditioned stimulus (CS) Stimulus that causes a learned response Conditioned response (CR) The learned response from the CS Contiguity NS/CS must be presented immediately before the US Acquisition Process of developing a learned response Extinction Process of a learned response dying over time Spontaneous recovery The sudden reappearance of an extinguished response Generalization (classical) Exhibiting the same response to a similar stimuli Discrimination (classical) Exhibiting the CR to ONLY the CS (opposite of generalization) Contingency Model (Rescorla and Wagner) Classical conditioning involves cognitive processes Conditioned taste aversion (Garcia effect) It only takes one time to be conditioned to a food Counter conditioning (Watson's little Albert experiment) Conditioning someone to change a response to its opposite (from fear to excitement) Operant conditioning Voluntary learning Law of effect (Thorndike) Positive outcomes strengthen a behavior and negative outcomes weaken a behavior Positive reinforcement Add something good to increase a behavior (a sticker for doing well on a test) Negative reinforcement Take away something bad to increase behavior (taking antacid before having a spicy dinner) Positive punishment Add something unfavorable to decrease a behavior (a teacher making you write your name one hundred times on the board for not putting it on your paper) Negative punishment Take away something favorable to decrease a behavior (taking away a teenagers phone for being disrespectful) Primary reinforcers Necessary for survival (water or food) Secondary reinforcers Not necessary for survival (stickers or a high five) Token reinforcer A type of secondary reinforcer that can be exchanged for other stuff (money for good grades) Generalization (operant) Responding the same to a similar stimuli for a reward Discrimination (operant) The discriminative stimulus indicates if a behavior will or will not be rewarded Overjustification effect Rewarding someone for something they already like to do (paying your child for good grades even though they have a high level of intrinsic motivation to do well) Shaping Use steps to train behavior Continuous reinforcement Receive a reward for each and every response (1 service hour for each $1 donated) Fixed ratio Reward every X number of responses (every 5 pages read, you get a piece of candy) Fixed interval Reward every X amount of time (every hour you read, you get a piece of candy) Variable ratio Reward after a random number of responses (slot machine) Variable interval Reward at a random time (teacher observations) Which type of schedule is most resistant to extinction? Variable ratio Modeling behaviors (Bandura) children imitate behaviors (bobo dolls) Prosocial behavior Helping behaviors Antisocial behaviors Unhelpful behaviors Latent learning (Tolman) Learning hidden until useful (rat in maze experiment) Cognitive maps mental representation of an area, allows navigation if blocked Insight learning (Kohler) Some learning is through simple intuition (chimps with crates to get bananas) Learned helplessness (Seligman) No matter what you do you never get a positive outcome so you just give up (word scrambles) Encoding the processing of information into the memory system Automatic encoding Requires no effort to remember Effortful encoding Requires attention and conscious effort to remember Imagery Attaching information to images Self referent encoding Better remember what interests you Dual encoding Combining different types of encoding aids in memory Chunking Breaking up into smaller meaningful units Introspection (Wundt) Looking inward Functionalism (James) Purpose of behavior Behavioral Learned, reinforced Humanistic Free will, choice, ideal, actualization Cognitive Perceptions, thoughts Evolutionary