Inhoud
Topic 1: Social Identity Theory...............................................................................................................2
Verkuyten, M. The social psychology of ethnic identity.................................................................2
Who We Are and Who We Choos to Help (or Not): An Introduction to Social Identity Theory......4
Ellemers Social identity theory.......................................................................................................6
Topic 2: Realistic Conflict Theory.........................................................................................................11
Blumer, H. Race prejudice as a sense of group position...............................................................11
Wetts, R. Privilege on the Precipice: Perceived Racial Status Threats Lead White Americans to
Oppose Welfare Programs...........................................................................................................14
Topic 3: Contact Theory.......................................................................................................................17
Finseraas, H. Does personal contact with ethnic minorities affect anti ‐immigrant sentiments? ..17
McKeown, S. The “contact hypothesis”: Critical reflections and future directions.......................19
Paluck, E. The contact hypothesis re-evaluated...........................................................................20
Topic 4: Social Dominance Orientation and Right-Wing Authoritarianism...........................................23
Duckitt, J. A dual-process motivational model of ideology, politics, and prejudice......................24
Pratto, F. Social Dominance Theory..............................................................................................26
Saunders, B. The right-wing authoritarianism scale.....................................................................29
Topic 5: Dehumanization.....................................................................................................................31
Kteily, N. Dehumanization: Trends, insights, and challenges........................................................31
Topic 6: Socialization............................................................................................................................34
Degner, J. The apple does not fall far from the tree, or does it?..................................................36
Topic 7: Measuring Prejudice...............................................................................................................39
Stark, T. Taking stock of explicit and implicit prejudice................................................................40
Topic 8: Voting for radical parties.........................................................................................................43
Arhin, K. The Republican Trump Voter: A Populist Radical Right Voter Like Any Other?..............43
Topic 9: Bias of the left.........................................................................................................................46
Brandt, M. Worldview conflict and prejudice (pages 1-39)..........................................................48
Topic 10: Moral Foundations Theory...................................................................................................51
Graham, J. Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations......................51
Topic 11: Social Norms.........................................................................................................................54
Schultner, D. Transmission of social bias through observational learning....................................56
Topic 12: Gender Role Beliefs and LGBTQ+ Prejudice..........................................................................57
Kite, M. Gender Differences in Anti-Gay Prejudice: Evidence for Stability and Change...............60
,Topic 1: Social Identity Theory
Verkuyten, M. The social psychology of ethnic identity
Social identity is a multifaceted concept that examines the relationship between an
individual and their environment, focusing on how an individual is perceived socially. Social
identity is not about what makes a person unique, but about characteristics shared with
others, placing individuals into social categories and groups.
There are three components of social identity:
o The sociostructural component: This refers to the social classification of people into
categories or groups based on criteria such as sex, age, ethnicity, race, culture,
nationality, religion, and legal status. Social categorization is a fundamental cognitive
process that influences cognition, affect, and behavior.
o The cultural component: Social identities come with stereotypical and normative
expectations about how individuals belonging to specific categories will and should
behave. These expectations are held by both those within and outside the category.
o The ontological component: This component involves judgments about the
inherent nature of people belonging to a particular category. It goes beyond simply
classifying individuals based on shared attributes and considers the perceived
essence of the category members.
Social identity and self-identification are distinct concepts:
o Social identity is a social fact, determined by how someone is classified and
perceived by others.
o Self-identification is how an individual personally interprets and relates to their
social identity.
The relationship between social identity and self-identification is dynamic and can take on
various forms:
o An individual's self-identification can align with their assigned social identity.
o An individual might resist or deny their assigned social identity.
o An individual might identify with a social identity that they do not belong to.
o Self-identification can be independent of existing social divisions, focusing on
identification with a cause, belief, or individual.
Ascription and self-ascription are crucial processes in the formation and negotiation of social
identities.
, o Ascription refers to the definition and labeling of an individual by others, influenced
by factors such as historical events, political classifications, legal regulations, and
social interactions.
o Self-ascription involves individuals actively constructing and claiming a social
identity, communicating their understanding of themselves to others, and seeking
social validation.
Collective processes play a significant role in self-ascription, as groups often strive to define
and communicate a shared identity:
o This is exemplified in the construction of collective trauma narratives, such as the
"Sivas massacre" for the Alevi community in Turkey. These narratives shape group
boundaries, define intergroup relations, and foster unity.
o Collective self-ascription is also evident in how groups manage their identity when
faced with negative labels, such as the efforts of Muslim organizations to distance
themselves from terrorism and portray a morally acceptable image.
Individual enactment of identity focuses on how individuals confirm and validate their social
identities through their actions and interactions with others:
o Individuals employ strategies to verify their self-perceptions, such as selective
interaction with those who confirm their identity and displaying identity cues
through their behavior, appearance, and language.
o Identity performance and enactment play a role in gaining social recognition and
acceptance from both in-group and out-group members. The success or failure of
these performances can influence an individual's sense of belonging and identity
authenticity.
Liberal ideology in Western societies has led to a growing emphasis on individual choice and
self-fashioning of identities. This has resulted in a more fluid and fragmented landscape of
social categories, with increased ambiguity and opportunities for individuals to choose and
shape their identities.
However, the emphasis on individual choice has limitations:
o It may not be applicable across different cultures and generations, potentially
reflecting a bias towards Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic
(WEIRD) populations.
o For many, social identities like ethnicity and race hold deep-rooted meanings and are
not easily chosen or discarded at will. These identities often shape self-
understanding and influence social and political dynamics.
o The increased freedom of choice can also trigger anxieties about inauthentic identity
claims and lead to the reinforcement of essentialist views on race and ethnicity.
The sources emphasize the complex interplay between social and psychological realities in
shaping social identity. While social identities originate from societal structures and
classifications, their psychological significance and personal meaning can vary depending on
an individual's experiences and self-identification processes.
,Who We Are and Who We Choos to Help (or Not): An Introduction to Social
Identity Theory
Social Identity Theory proposes that individuals possess both personal identities ("I") that
differentiate them from others and social identities ("we") based on their membership in
social groups. These social identities can influence individuals' perceptions, attitudes, and
behaviors towards both in-group and out-group members.
The chapter highlights the importance of a positive social identity for individuals' self-
esteem and well-being. Individuals are motivated to maintain a positive view of their social
groups, leading them to engage in strategies that enhance the status of their in-group or
differentiate it favorably from out-groups.
Intergroup animosity, such as prejudice and discrimination, can arise from the desire to
maintain a positive social identity. Two key processes contributing to intergroup animosity
are:
o Ingroup favoritism: Preferentially allocating resources, showing trust, and
cooperating with in-group members compared to out-group members.
o Outgroup derogation: Devaluing or discriminating against members of the out-group
to elevate the in-group's standing.
Social identity threat occurs when the positive distinctiveness or value of an individual's
social identity is challenged, potentially leading to negative intergroup behaviors. Two forms
of social identity threat are discussed:
o Distinctiveness threat: The perception that the in-group is losing its unique and
positive qualities, often due to comparisons with other groups or perceived
assimilation into a superordinate identity.
o Group-value threat: The perception that the in-group's values, beliefs, or status are
being devalued or negatively compared to those of an out-group.
The chapter explores how social identities can also contribute to positive intergroup
relations and social change. It presents two models that address these possibilities:
o Dual Identity Model: This model suggests that fostering a shared superordinate
identity (e.g., national identity) alongside distinct subgroup identities can reduce
intergroup conflict by providing a common ground while maintaining a sense of
belonging to one's original group.
o Politicized Identification: This model highlights the potential of social movements
and collective action to unite individuals from different groups around a common
cause. By identifying with a movement that challenges inequality or injustice,
individuals can overcome intergroup boundaries and work together for social
change.
The Continuum of Self-Concept: Chapter 2 highlights that individuals' self-concepts can
range from purely interpersonal to purely intergroup. On one end of the spectrum,
, individuals define themselves based on unique personal attributes and experiences that
differentiate them from others. On the other end, individuals primarily define themselves
based on their group memberships and the shared characteristics and values of those
groups. This continuum highlights how the relative salience of personal and social identities
can vary depending on the context and individual differences.
Identity Management Strategies: The chapter explains that individuals actively manage their
social identities to maintain a positive self-concept. When individuals perceive their group to
be of low status or facing negative stereotypes, they may employ strategies to improve their
social identity. These strategies can include:
o Social mobility: Leaving the low-status group and joining a higher-status group.
o Social creativity: Redefining or reinterpreting the in-group's characteristics in a more
positive light or comparing the in-group to an even lower-status out-group.
o Social competition: Directly challenging the status quo and engaging in collective
action to improve the in-group's position.
How Social Identities Encourage Intergroup Animosity: Chapter 2 elaborates on specific
mechanisms through which social identities can lead to intergroup animosity and resistance
to social change. These mechanisms include:
o Group-based social comparisons: Individuals tend to make comparisons between
their in-group and relevant out-groups, which can fuel feelings of rivalry or hostility,
especially when the out-group is perceived as superior on important dimensions.
o In-group bias and out-group homogeneity: Individuals often show favoritism
towards their in-group members while perceiving out-group members as more
similar to each other than they actually are, making it easier to stereotype and
devalue the out-group.
, o Threat to in-group distinctiveness: When the boundaries between groups become
blurred or the in-group's unique identity is threatened, individuals may react
defensively and exhibit hostility towards the out-group.
How Social Identities Facilitate Intergroup Solidarity and Social Change: Chapter 2 also
discusses how social identities can be leveraged to promote intergroup solidarity and
support for social change. This can occur through:
o Shared social identity: Emphasizing commonalities and shared goals between
groups can reduce intergroup animosity and foster cooperation.
o Recategorization: Shifting individuals' perceptions of group boundaries to create a
more inclusive superordinate identity.
o Cross-group contact: Meaningful interactions between members of different groups
can challenge stereotypes and promote understanding and empathy.
Politicized Identification and Collective Action: Chapter 2 highlights the crucial role of
politicized identification in driving collective action for social change. When individuals
strongly identify with a social movement or cause that aims to address injustice or inequality,
they are more likely to engage in protests, activism, and advocacy. The chapter suggests that
politicized identification can be particularly effective in promoting solidarity with
disadvantaged groups and motivating collective action to challenge systems of oppression.
Beyond Intergroup Animosity: The chapter acknowledges that SIT research has
predominantly focused on understanding intergroup animosity, but argues that future
research should further explore the conditions under which social identities promote
prosocial behavior and support for disadvantaged groups.
Other-race effect: is the tendency to more easily recognize faces that belong to one's own racial
group, or racial groups that one has been in contact with. > Why are they all the same? >
• Familiarity
• Evaluation on stereotypical traits for that group
• People think of themselves as complex and nuanced and others as simplistic and one-dimensional
Members of dominant groups – Do not need to pay attention – May not be motivated to pay
attention.
Members of subordinate groups – Need to form detailed impressions – Pay attention to
those who affect outcomes
Ellemers Social identity theory
Here is an in-depth summary of social identity theory (SIT) as described in the provided source:
Social Identity Theory (SIT)
SIT is a "grand theory," meaning that it attempts to address a wide range of social
phenomena, including intrapersonal cognitive mechanisms, interpersonal and intergroup
behaviors, and broader social relations. It connects processes at these different levels of
analysis.
, SIT argues that in many social situations people think of themselves and others as group
members, rather than as unique individuals, and that social identity underpins intergroup
behavior.
Intergroup behavior seen as qualitatively distinct from interpersonal behavior.
SIT aims to understand and explain how people adopt and behave in terms of social (rather
than personal) identities, and explores the implications of social identity for the perceptions
and behaviors of individuals.
Origins of SIT
The theory was inspired in part by the personal experiences of discrimination and
intergroup conflict of Henri Tajfel, a Jewish survivor of World War II. Tajfel was motivated to
understand how individuals who had previously lived together peacefully could become
enemies during times of conflict, even when there were no obvious rational or objective
reasons for this to happen.
Tajfel and his colleagues developed the "minimal group studies" to investigate this
phenomenon in a controlled laboratory setting. Participants in these studies were assigned
to groups based on arbitrary or meaningless criteria (e.g., preference for one abstract painter
over another).
Despite the minimal nature of these group assignments, participants consistently displayed
"ingroup favoritism," allocating more resources to members of their own group than to
members of the other group. This finding, known as the "mere categorization effect,"
challenged prevailing theories of intergroup conflict, such as realistic conflict theory, which
posited that competition over scarce resources was necessary for intergroup conflict to arise.
Basic Principles of SIT
Social Categorization: This is the cognitive process of grouping individuals into categories
based on shared characteristics. This is seen as a functional process that allows us to simplify
and make sense of complex social information by focusing on similarities within categories
and differences between categories.
Social Comparison: This involves assessing the relative worth or value of one's own group
(the ingroup) compared to other groups (outgroups). Since there is no objective way to
evaluate groups, comparisons are made based on subjective criteria.
Social Identity: This refers to the extent to which individuals feel a sense of belonging to a
particular social group and incorporate that group membership into their self-concept (and
the positive or negative evaluation associated with this membership). This encompasses
both a cognitive awareness of group membership and an emotional attachment to the
group. (divisive and exclusive, are context dependent)
Psychological group distinctiveness: Need for belonging to a positively evaluated group but
also need to be distinct from others. People thus try to achieve a position of their group that
is distinct and positive.
,Categorization: People search actively for information. People simplify processing all that
information by ignoring certain differences and emphasizing (or even exaggerating) certain
similarities of that information.
Categorization of non-social stimuli: similarities within groups (homogeneity) and differences
between groups are over-emphasized.
Identity Management Strategies
SIT proposes that individuals are motivated to achieve and maintain a positive social identity,
and that this motivation shapes their behavior.
When an individual belongs to a group that is devalued or viewed negatively in society, they
can employ different strategies to manage their social identity:
o Individual Mobility: This involves attempting to distance oneself from the devalued
group and gain entry into a more highly regarded group. This is essentially an
individual-level strategy, focused on changing one's personal social standing rather
than addressing the status of the group as a whole.
o Social Creativity: This strategy entails redefining the intergroup comparison in a way
that favors the ingroup. This can be done by focusing on different dimensions of
comparison, comparing the ingroup to an even lower-status group, or reinterpreting
the meaning of existing group characteristics.
o Social Competition: This involves direct efforts to challenge the existing status
hierarchy and improve the position of the ingroup through collective action. This
strategy is distinct from individual mobility in that it aims to benefit the entire group.
Socio-Structural Characteristics
SIT argues that the choice of identity management strategy is influenced by individuals'
perceptions of the social structure, specifically the perceived opportunities and
motivations for individual or group status improvement.
These socio-structural characteristics include:
o Permeability of group boundaries: This refers to the perceived ease or difficulty of
moving from one group to another. If group boundaries are seen as permeable,
individual mobility becomes a more viable strategy. However, if boundaries are
perceived as impermeable, individuals are more likely to pursue group-level
strategies, such as social creativity or social competition.
o Stability of group status: This relates to the perceived likelihood of change in the
relative status of different groups. When group status differences are perceived as
stable and enduring, individuals are less likely to engage in social competition.
However, if status differences are seen as unstable or illegitimate, social competition
becomes a more attractive option.
o Legitimacy of current status relations: This concerns the perceived fairness or justice
of existing status differences. When status differences are seen as illegitimate, this
can motivate individuals to seek change, either through individual mobility or
through collective action.
,Core Predictions of SIT
Individuals who identify strongly with a group will strive to make favorable comparisons
between their ingroup and relevant outgroups. This is motivated by a desire to maintain a
positive social identity.
Social categorization can be sufficient to engender intergroup discrimination and conflict,
even in the absence of competition over resources.
The choice of identity management strategy (individual mobility, social creativity, or social
competition) is influenced by subjective perceptions of the social structure, including the
permeability of group boundaries, the stability of group status relations, and the legitimacy
of those relations.
Social comparison:
, Intergroup comparison:
Theoretical Developments and Extensions of SIT
Self-Categorization Theory (SCT): Developed by John Turner, SCT builds upon SIT by
providing a more detailed account of the cognitive processes involved in social categorization
and self-definition. SCT emphasizes that social categorization can occur at different levels of
abstraction and that the salience of different social identities can change depending on the
context.
The relationship between self-esteem and intergroup differentiation has been a subject of
much debate and research. While some studies have found support for the idea that
positive intergroup differentiation can boost self-esteem, others have found less consistent
results.
Researchers have explored the role of uncertainty reduction as a potential motivator for
social identification. The idea is that joining a group can help reduce uncertainty about one's
place in the social world by providing clear norms and guidelines for behavior.
The concept of social identity threat has been developed to explain how individuals react
when their social identity is challenged or devalued. This threat can lead to a variety of
defensive responses, including ingroup favoritism, outgroup derogation, and efforts to
reaffirm the value of the ingroup.
