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HOPT exam I summary/overview
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This summary gives an overview of all (political) philosophers mentioned in the lectures for exam I! I got an 7 for this exam.
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History of Political Thought Partial Exam 2
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History of Political Thought Exam Part 1
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HOPT exam I summary/overview
All thinkers’ works are explained by these factors: major work, era (and its context), core idea in the
work, on human nature, on ethics, on the role of the state (its function, what it should provide, what kind
of state, foreign affairs), characteristics of the king, on science, on religion, on law, on females, and
lastly their impact.
PLATO
Major work
Republic
Era
428? – 347 BC, Athens. In Athens was a direct democracy, it was a unitary state and there was a
separation of powers. Plato lived at a time of (civil) war in Athens (Pelopennesian War, Thirty Tyrants,
etc.).
Core idea in the work
Ideal city; soul; epistemocracy
Two normative commitments (according to Plato):
1. Political desirability of order/unity
2. Political desirability of truthful politics (e.g. so not following demagogues)
In politics we should pursue the good (order/unity, truth) which van be known by those with expertise
On human nature
Plato believes that the macro and micro level are the similar, even identical in some sense: the city, the
individual and the soul. → Methodological individualism: qualities of the state must be rooted in the
qualities of the individual.
Plato’s theory of human nature is common to both the model cities (as explained below). He believes
that people are characterised by innate differences that are largely inheritable (this motivates eugenics
program, but you can also be improved by education and these difference are shown in the division of
labour). There is thus a natural hierarchy. The differences between the sexes (or similarities are
discussed below) Important is: the point of law and social institutions is to produce the identification of
nature with goodness.
In a direct democracy, Plato believes that value-pluralism (= existence of conflicting and incompatible
values) is revealed. This is a consequence of (1) the product of the diversity and inconsistency of human
desires/appetites and (2) the lack of regulation of these in a commercial democracy. Plato obviously
rejects democracy for a couple of reasons.
On ethics
The methodological individualism above is compatible with political morality (political ethics) that is
anti-individual!
On the role of the state
Again, the point of law and social institutions is to produce the identification of nature with goodness.
Plato talks about two model cities: the city of pigs (true city) and kallipolis (lovely city). The kallipolis
is the city Plato wants to achieve.
,Characteristics of the city of pigs:
- Extensive division of labour
- Open to internal and external trade
- Monetised economy
- Broadly egalitarian (equality for all people)
- Free of slaves
- Pacific (will be left alone)
- Property-owning
- Minimal state structure
- No philosophy
- Joyful religion
- No luxury/arts
- Lack of convenience/luxury goods
o No regulation of human nature, so no guarantee of unity or harmony
Characteristics of the kallipolis:
- Natural hierarchy
- Civic religion (pan-hellenic religion)
- Censorship (civic education)
- Some noble lies
- Program of socialisation/education
- Tacit contract between state and citizens
- Communism of the soldiers/guardians
- Platonic eugenics (further explanation see notes)
- Platonic feminism
In the kallipolis, there are 3 main classes that are parallel to the triparte soul:
City Soul
Guardians (rulers, philosopher-kings) Rational part
Auxiliaries (soldiers) Spirited part
Workers (economy) Appetit/desiring part
Characteristics of the king
Plato advocates epistemocracy, also called experts-rule. It presupposes that ruling is a craft/skill or that
it requires knowledge (or competence). The philosopher-king (also called the guardian) will rule:
- The philosopher-king self-selects his bureaucracy. This requires a strong public ethos (dat
het publiek zich in wil zetten) and ability to select (and breed) for competence.
- This philosopher-king will be accepted by the rest, because the masses “are prepared to cut
to pieces anyone”
Philosophers will become philosopher-kings, because of the consequentialist argument (1) and because
of an constraint on this (2). The consequentialist argument holds that a small class of citizens
(philosophers) should sacrifice their private happiness or benefits for the flourishing of the whole
(communism of the soldiers/guardians) → the good of the consequences of this justifies the
act/institution. The constraint is that one can only be obliged to give up his private benefits (etc.) if the
state has benefitted from it first (so if it first had education of the state).
This presupposes the tacit contract between state and citizen: the state supplies benefits and if you do
not emigrate, the state can demand compliance to the laws in return. Het idee is dat de juiste ingerichte
staat alleen een bepaald gedrag kan afdwingen van een groep burgers als dit gedrag als doel heeft om de
toekomstige leider(s) op te voeden (dus als het doel goed is) EN als deze groep burgers het daadwerkelijk
, wel kan (je kan niet gedrag afdwingen wat een persoon niet kan vertonen). The state can’t just demand
anything it wants!
On science
Not really included I think, but education is included in Plato’s piece. Plato advocates civic education
(like civic religion, see below). In this civic education, there is censorship. This includes banishing the
poets and the regulation of children’s songs.
Plato furthermore believes that education is the perfection of one’s nature. Since it is an orientation
towards the good (recall cave analogy!).
On religion
Again, the point of law and social institutions is to produce the identification of nature with goodness.
This is also the case of religion. In the kallipolis, there is a civic religion. This religion has the function
to create political and social unity/order (like American patriotism). It promises the good and truth, it
informs the content and structure of all of society’s major institutions. This is because the masses are
incapable of understanding the truth it relies on images of the truth, like religion. Recall Plato’s cave
analogy!
This religion would be a rationalised(!) pan-hellenic religion.
On law
Again, the point of law and social institutions is to produce the identification of nature with goodness.
The purpose of law is strictly political and benefits social harmony (the whole society as a whole). The
law is also not neutral, it has an aim; the unity, harmony and order. It is force, but also persuasion.
Civic religion/civic education can be seen as law I think, the things the state arranges. Also it spreads
noble lies: the state must use fictional/poetic and mythical origin stories that convince both rulers and
citizens. The purpose is to defend the survival of the state: to get people to be willing to sacrifice their
lives for other citizens when attacked. This is not lying, because of its other function it has: “this
particular end justifies the means”. Plato is of opinion that without the survival of the state no other
goods are possible.
On females
Platonic feminism. The hierarchy between people is represented in both sexes, but it is relatively
symmetrical in them. The best women are often (roughly) as good as best men: the natural (and moral!)
equality of human beings is denied, but any privileges and obligations given to leading men should also
be given to leading women.
Impact
Platonic feminism was very influential in history (e.g. Ibn Rushd).
Comparison
HOBBES: Plato says that self-rule generates overconfidence in each of us (democracy). Hobbes is also
not in favour of self-rule, it creates over-confidence and also because of his account of the state of nature:
a sovereign is needed.
Also, Plato also believes that the fact that everyone wants to rule, causes murderous conflict and
revolutions. Hobbes says that the equality of mankind causes this, but also the need (desire) for self-
preservation and peace. (perhaps even fear for death) There must be noted that Plato believes in adaptive
preferences in this case. Because everyone can have a say, they want to be in control.
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