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Samenvatting - From language to linguistics
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A summary of the key material for the course "From Language to Linguistics". The summary is in English and focuses on the end-term content.
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Handout 7 -bar theory is a framework in syntax that proposes a universal structure for all syntactic
X
categories (like nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.). It breaks down phrases into hierarchical
levels, with each phrase consisting of three main parts:
1) Head =The main category of the phrase, such as averb for a verb phrase.
2) Specifier =A dependent part of the phrase that addsspecific details.
3) Complement =Additional information that completesthe phrase.
very phrase in a sentence, regardless of its type, follows the same basic structural template
E
in X-bar theory. This template can be applied to noun phrases (NP), verb phrases (VP),
adjective phrases (AP), prepositional phrases (PP), and more.
The phrase is called XP, where "X" stands for the head of the phrase (e.g., N for noun, V for
verb, A for adjective). The rules are:
● 𝑋𝑃→𝑆 𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑋’: This rule indicates that an XP(Phrase) consists of two main
components
○ Specifier:The optional part of the phrase that modifiesor adds information to
the phrase.
○ X' (X-bar):An intermediate projection that connectsthe specifier to
the rest of the phrase. It’s the middle layer in the hierarchical
structure.
● 𝑋’→𝑋𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: This rule states that the X'(X-bar) is composed of
○ X (Head):The core part of the phrase, such as a noun(N), verb (V), or
adjective (A).
○ Complement:The part of the phrase that completesthe meaning of the head.
In syntax, complements and adjuncts are two different types of elements in a sentence that
modify or add information to the main verb or head of a phrase, but they serve different
functions and follow different rules.
omplements =Essential parts of a phrase that typicallyreceive a semantic role (or theta
C
role) from the main verb. Complements are often necessary (obligatory) to complete the
meaning of the verb or head of a phrase. Without a complement, the sentence or phrase
may feel incomplete or ungrammatical.
For example: "She broke a door." Here, "a door" is the complement of "broke,"
because it completes the meaning of the action. Without it, "She broke" is incomplete
in English because "broke" requires an object.
heta roles =The semantic relationships that elementsin a sentence have with the verb,
T
like "agent" (the doer), "theme" (the thing affected), etc.
djuncts =Optional modifiers that add extra informationbut are not
A
essential to the core meaning of the sentence. They do not carry a
theta role. Adjuncts can usually be left out without affecting the
grammaticality of the sentence. Adjuncts provide information extra information about time,
place, and manner of the action/event
"She broke the door carefully." Here, "carefully" is an adjunct because it adds detail
about how she broke the door but is not essential to the meaning.
,There are some exceptions:
● Optional arguments =Sometimes, a verb can be usedwith or without a
complement, depending on context.
○ For example: "He is eating" vs. "He is eating an apple."
"An apple" is an optional complement because the sentence remains
grammatical without it, even though it clarifies what he is eating.
● Obligatory adjuncts =In rare cases, adjuncts arerequired to complete the
sentence.
○ For example: "He behaves stupidly." vs. "He behaves"
In English, the verb "behaves" often feels incomplete without an adjunct like
"stupidly" or "well," since it normally requires additional information to specify
how he behaves.
P Ellipsis =A phenomenon in syntax where a verbphrase (VP) is omitted because it can
V
be inferred from context. This allows for more concise sentences without repeating
information unnecessarily.
For example: “Mary [VP broke the window] in the evening and Joost [did it] in the
afternoon." In this case, "did it" substitutes for the previously mentioned action
(breaking the window), maintaining grammaticality.
Another example: "Mary [VP broke the window] in theevening and Joost did it the
glass." This sentence is ungrammatical because "theglass" fails to substitute for the
VP. The ellipsis cannot simply replace the direct object or a part of the VP that is not
fully encapsulated in the initial clause.
P-ellipsis test =Involves omitting part of a verbphrase in the second clause, usually by
V
using expressions like"d idthattoo"or"doesthatalso."If the omitted information is a
complement, it’s essential to the meaning of the sentence and must be specified. If it’s an
adjunct, it is optional and provides extra information that isn’t necessary to complete the
verb’s meaning.
Complement Example: "Shebrokethe windowwith thehammer, and he [didthat] [with a
stone]."
● Here, "the window" is a complement to "broke" because it is required to complete the
meaning of the verb. The VP-ellipsis test shows that "the window" cannot be omitted
and that "with a hammer" can be replaced with "with a stone."
● This maintains the meaning of both sentences because the main action (breaking a
window) requires an object, while the manner (using a hammer or stone) is
additional.
Adjunct Example: "Shebrokethe windowwith the hammer,and he [didthat] [the vase]."
● This version is ungrammatical because it tries to replace the adjunct "with the
hammer" with "the vase," which doesn’t work as a substitute in the same position.
● The adjunct here (the tool used) doesn’t play a fundamental role in completing the
verb’s meaning, so changing it while keeping the VP ellipsis (omitting part of the
phrase) fails in this way.
, hen we adjunction takes place, a "copy" or "clone" of the root node (highest node in the
W
structure, such as VP or NP) is created, which allows for additional elements to attach to it.
These added elements do not change the fundamental sentence structure but instead
expand it, providing optional, descriptive details about the action or event. It does not alter
the phrase's core structure (or syntax tree’s core nodes) needed for the sentence's basic
meaning. Instead, it simply adds space for extra, non-essential information. The elements
added via adjunction do not receive thematic roles (they are not central to the meaning of
the predicate/verb), meaning they are not required by the verb to complete the sentence.
For instance, the verb "make" requires an object (like "a cake") to make sense, but
adjuncts like "in the kitchen" or "happily" are not required, even though they add
more details about the action.
“ She is making a cake."
Here, "a cake" is a complement (required by the verb
"making") and gives the verb its complete meaning. Without
it, the sentence would be incomplete ("She is making" is
ungrammatical).
“She is making a cake (in the kitchen) (with the food mixer)
(happily)."
These added elements "(in the kitchen)", "(with the food
mixer)", are adjuncts. They provide extra information but are
not required for the sentence to be grammatical. They do not
change the basic syntactic structure, just add space for
additional, non-obligatory information.
other node =A node that directly dominates anothernode or set of
M
nodes. A mother node can be thought of as a “parent” node, with the
nodes directly beneath it being its daughters.
Sisters=Nodes that share the same mother are consideredsisters. Sisters do not dominate
each other; rather, they exist at the same level in the tree.
Sisterhood =If two nodes are immediately dominatedby the samen node, they are sisters.
𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡[ 𝑡𝑜𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑡 ]
𝑗 𝑖 𝑗
" What"starts in its base position as the object of"eat", but due to wh-movement, it moves to
the front of the sentence. Traces (tj and ti) mark the original positions of moved elements.
-command =Iff Node A and Node B are sisters (bothdominated by a common parent
C
node), Node A c-commands Node B and any nodes that fall below B in the tree. This
relationship is fundamental in syntactic theory for describing certain dependencies and
hierarchical structures in language.
-command (Reinhart 1976):Just as Fibonacci numbersappear in various natural patterns,
C
c-command consistently appears in syntactic structures across languages, underpinning
phenomena such as binding and scope.
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