This summary shows a number of important events in Chinese modern history, including timelines, key concepts and characters from the 1st semester.
See “Chinese Modern History After the Tiananmen” for the comprehensive summary of Chinese modern history for semester 2.
Global summary of key terms modern Chinese history
unit 1: Global & domestic challenges
Key-terms
First Opium War (1839-1842)
The First Opium War was fought between China and Great Britain over
trade and sovereignty, with Britain seeking to open China's markets to
British goods and China seeking to maintain control over its economy
and society.
Imperialism (during 1 st opium war period)
This was granted in China during the First Opium War, characterized
by brutal, exploitative approach to trade and diplomacy & the
aggressive expansion of Western powers, particularly Great Britain,
into China's territory and economy. The Opium War was the result of
tensions between Britain and China.
Th foreign powers were seeking to impose their will on China through
military force and economic coercion. The effects of this imperialism
would be felt for decades to come, with China struggling to regain
control over its own affairs and to modernize its economy and society
in the face of foreign domination.
Unequal treaties
Unequal treaties refer to the treaties imposed by Western powers upon
China during the period of imperialism that were heavily weighted in
favour of the foreign powers. These treaties were characterized by
provisions that gave Western powers preferential treatment in trade and
investment, granted them extraterritorial rights within China, and limited
China's sovereignty and ability to regulate its own affairs.
The treaties were unequal because they were imposed on China by
force, often after military defeats, and were negotiated from a position of
extreme power imbalance between China and the Western powers. China,
weakened by internal political turmoil and unable to effectively resist
foreign aggression, was forced to accept these treaties in order to avoid
further military conflict and economic isolation.
The unequal treaties that followed the war further exacerbated China's
economic situation, as foreign powers were given preferential treatment in
trade and investment > treaty of Nanjing & Boxer protocol (1901).
The unequal treaties imposed on China were a major source of resentment
and frustration for the Chinese people, who saw them as a symbol of
China's weakness and humiliation at the hands of foreign powers. The
effects of these treaties would be felt for decades to come, as China
struggled to regain control over its own affairs and to modernize its
economy and society in the face of foreign domination.
Treaty of Nanjing (1842)
Ended the First Opium War in 1842, required China to cede Hong Kong
to Britain, open up five treaty ports for British trade, pay a large
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indemnity to Britain, grant extraterritorial rights to British citizens in
China, and established a system of ‘most favoured nation’ treatment.
This required China to extend any trade or investment privileges it
granted to one foreign power to all other foreign powers. This treaty
was highly unfavourable to China and set the precedent for unequal
treaties that would follow.
Extra-territorial rights
The legal immunity or exemption from the jurisdiction of the local laws of a
foreign country granted to foreigners or foreign governments within that
country. In the context of imperialism in China, extraterritorial rights were
often granted to Western powers in the treaties they imposed on China.
Britain and other Western powers used military force to assert their
dominance over China, forcing China to sign a series of unequal treaties
that granted foreign powers extraterritorial rights and control over key
parts of China's economy, including ports and trade routes.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, foreign powers such as Great
Britain, France, Germany, and the United States forced China to sign a
series of unequal treaties that granted them extraterritorial rights within
China.
Allowed foreigners to live and conduct business in China without being
subject to Chinese law or jurisdiction, but instead to the laws of their
own countries;
Foreigners with extraterritorial rights were often judged in separate
courts, staffed by their own countrymen and operating under their own
laws.
o They were largely immune from prosecution by Chinese authorities
and were able to operate with relative impunity.
Extraterritorial rights were seen as a major affront to China's sovereignty
and were deeply resented by many Chinese. They were a key element of
the unequal treaties imposed on China by foreign powers during the
period of imperialism. The extraterritorial rights granted to foreign powers
in China were not fully abolished until the 1943 Sino-British Treaty for the
Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China.
Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)
A large-scale civil war that occurred in China from 1850 to 1864, during
the late Qing dynasty. The rebellion was caused by a combination of
factors, including economic, social, and political grievances, as well as
religious and cultural differences.
First Opium War
What were the causes of the First Opium War?
o The main cause of the war was the British desire to open up
China's markets to British trade, particularly in tea and silk,
which were highly sought after in Europe.
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However, China had a policy of isolationism and limited
foreign trade, and restricted the import of British goods in
favour of silver, which caused a trade imbalance that Britain
sought to rectify.
o The issue of opium trade: British merchants had been illegally
importing opium from India into China, despite the Chinese
government's ban on the drug. The British merchants wanted to
continue this lucrative trade, while the Chinese government was
concerned about the social and economic problems caused by
opium addiction among its people.
When the Chinese government attempted to crack down on
the opium trade by confiscating and destroying British opium,
the British responded with force, leading to the outbreak of
the First Opium War.
o In addition to these economic factors, there were also cultural
and political tensions between China and Great Britain > Britain
seeking to assert its dominance over China, which it viewed as
an inferior civilization.
The British saw the Chinese as resistant to change and
progress, and believed that they needed to be forced into
opening up their markets and adopting more modern,
Western practices.
What were its consequences for Qing China?’
The consequences of the First Opium War for Qing China were
significant and far-reaching. Here are some of the key consequences:
o Treaty of Nanjing: The war ended with the signing of the Treaty
of Nanjing in 1842. This treaty was highly unfavourable to China
and set the precedent for unequal treaties that would follow.
o Loss of sovereignty: The Treaty of Nanjing was the first of
several unequal treaties that China was forced to sign with
Western powers, which severely curtailed China's sovereignty
and autonomy. China was forced to open up more treaty ports
and grant more concessions to foreign powers, leading to a loss
of control over its own economy and resources.
o Economic decline: the opium trade had a devastating effect on
China's economy and society, as it led to widespread addiction
and drained China of its silver reserves.
The unequal treaties further worsened China's economic
situation, as foreign powers were given preferential treatment
in trade and investment.
o Domestic unrest: The Qing government's failure to resist foreign
aggression and secure China's sovereignty and interests led to
domestic unrest and rebellions.
Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) and the Boxer Rebellion (1899-
1901).
o Modernization: The defeat in the Opium War and the subsequent
unequal treaties highlighted China's weakness and sparked a
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debate about the need for modernization and reform. Some
officials and intellectuals advocated for adopting Western
technology and ideas to strengthen China's military and
economy.
Leading to the Self-Strengthening Movement in the late 19th
century.
Taiping Rebellion
What caused the Taiping Rebellion?
o One of the main causes of the Taiping Rebellion > economic
hardship, which was widespread in China at the time;
The population had grown rapidly, and there was intense
competition for land and resources, which led to high levels of
poverty and social unrest;
The Qing government was struggling with issues such as
corruption, inflation, and the growing influence of foreign
powers, which exacerbated economic difficulties.
o The social and cultural divide between the ruling Manchu
minority and the Han majority, which had long-standing
grievances against the Qing dynasty;
The Manchu had imposed discriminatory policies against the
Han, which led to resentment and a desire for change.
o Religious factors > Hong Xiuquan, the leader of the Taiping
Rebellion, had been influenced by Christian missionaries and
claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus Christ. He sought to
establish a new religious and social order that would replace the
existing Confucian-based system.
o Political factors> a desire for greater representation and rights
for the people, as well as a growing sense of frustration with the
Qing government's inability to address the country's problems.
Together, these factors contributed to the outbreak of the Taiping
Rebellion, which ultimately resulted in the deaths of millions of people
and a major upheaval in Chinese society and politics.
How did the Taiping Rebellion and other incidents of domestic
unrest contribute to the decline of imperial rule?
o The Taiping Rebellion was a massive challenge to the Qing dynasty's
authority and military strength. The rebellion was able to control
large portions of China and posed a significant threat to the Qing
government. Although the government was ultimately able to
suppress the rebellion, it was left weakened and vulnerable to
further domestic and foreign challenges.
o The Taiping Rebellion highlighted the deep social and economic
problems that plagued China in the late 19th century. The rebellion
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