psyc 228 exam newest 2024 actual exam complete 200
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PSYC 228 EXAM NEWEST 2024 ACTUAL EXAM
COMPLETE 200 QUESTIONS AND CORRECT DETAILED
ANSWERS (VERIFIED ANSWERS) |ALREADY GRADED A+
Unit 1: Chapter 1 & 2
1: Briefly describe the five key issues associated with the understanding of human
development. Of the five issues, which ones do you find most compelling and why? -
ANSWER: - 1: Nature vs Nurture: Nature is that we think of as pre-wiring and is
influenced by genetic in heritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally
taken as the influence of external factors after conception: example the product of
exposure, life experiences and learning on an individual.
Nature: genes and hereditary factors, physical appearance, personality
characteristics.
Nurture: Environment variables, childhood eUxperiences how we are raised by social
relationships, surrounding culture.
- 2: Continuity and discontinuity: Continuity view says that change is gradual.
Characteristics or features of an individual that stays the same as person matures
through the lifespan. (ex: thinking talking, acting)
The discontinuity view sees development as more of changes that produce different
behaviors in different age-specific life periods called stages. Discontinuity view
believes that people go through the same stages the same order but not necessarily
the same rate.
3: Development stability & instability: Everyone develops at the same rate.
Development instability: Individuals are developing changing in different ways
compared with one another. (Different rate than their peers).
4: Normative events vs non-normative events: Normative events refer to something
that affects everyone in a culture at the same time or an incident that matches the
sequential and historical events shared by the majority of people.
Non- Normative event an incident that not happens to everyone or that happens at a
different time than typically experienced by others.
5: Socio-cultural variation: Socio-cultural factors include:
· Gender: Expectations that a given culture associates with a person's biological sex.
· Race: A way of categorizing humans that typically focuses on physical traits.
· Ethnicity: A specific set of physical, cultural,
2: Describe the psychodynamic approach on human development. Compare and
contrast the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud with the psychosocial theory of
Erik Erikson. - ANSWER: - Sigmung freud and his student Erickson introduced the first
psychodynamics theories and the idea that human growth and motivation and
progression are through universal and developmental stages it also stresses early life
experiences in shaping and determining adult personality and behavior.
- Levels of consciousness. Freud compared the mind to an iceberg. Only about one
tenth of our mind is conscious and rest of the mind is unconscious. Unacceptable
urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression.
He thinks our personality develops from a conflict between two forces: Our
,biological aggressive and pleasure seeking drives versus or internal (socialized )
control over their drives.
Theory of psychosexual development: Freud believed that personality develops
during early childhood. And if we do not have proper nurturing and parenting during
a stage we will be stuck or fixated (obsessed with) in that stage, even as adult.
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
- Erik Erickson ( Psychosocial theory eight stages)
In each stage conflicting ideas must be resolved in order for a person to be
confident. Failure to master these will lead to a deficiency in feelings.
1: Infancy: 0-1 : trust (mistrust)-> mother and caregiver-> resecure-> hope: trust and
confidence.
2: Early childhood: 2-3-> Autonomy (doubt, shame) -> parents -> be independent ->
will: Use and exercise freedom and self retraint.
3: Childhood: 4-6 -> initiative (guilt) - basic family -> be powerful -> Purpose and
distinction -> Ability to intimate own activities, pressure goals.
4: Childhood: 7-12 -> industry (inferiority) -> neighborhood (school) -> be good ->
Competence in intellectual, social and physical skills.
5: Adolescence: 113- 19-> identity (role confusion) -> peer groups -> fit into adult
world.. of who am I? -> Fidelity a
3: Describe the cognitive perspective on human development. Compare and contrast
the Piaget's theory of cognitive development with Vgotsky's. How do these theories
differ from the information processing approach to cognition? - ANSWER: - Cognitive
perspectives focus on how our thinking develops.
Jean Piaget theory: Children construct on understanding of the world around them,
then experience what they already know and what they discover in their
environment.
- 3 basic components to his cognitive theory:
· Schemas (building blocks of knowledge) Organized patterns of thinking that our
experience in the world. Ex: babies have initiate schemas like sucking thumb. These
reflexes are already programmed in us.
· Viewed intellectual growth: (Assimilation)- using an existing knowledge (schema) to
deal with new object or situation. (Accommodation)- This happens when existing
schema does not walk and change to deal with new object or situation.
· And turns into equilibrium.
- 4 Stages of cognitive development: ( intellectual development)
1: Sensorimotor: Birth to age 2 during this stage is object permance knowing that
object still exists, even If its hidden. Children at this age play with their food.
2: Preoperational stage (2-7) thinks about things symbolically. Thinking is still self-
interested; infant has difficulty taking viewpoints of others. Ex: Children often believe
moon follows them.
3: Concrete operational stage (7-11) major turning point in child cognitive
development because marks beginning of logical thought. Child can work out things
in head. Ex: Begin question existence of santa.
4: Formal orientation stage ( 11 years and over) starts at 11 lasts into adulthood. Ex:
Children show great concern for physical appearance.
,- Lev Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development. In contrast to piaget who believed
all of us progress through the same stages of development in much the same order,
Vygotsky viewed a child's unique social world as the main influence on cognitive
change. Vygotsky theory is sociocultural theory with view that human development
as a
4: Describe the behavioral perspective on human development. Discuss the three
types of behavioral learning mechanisms. How do they differ? How are they the
same? - ANSWER: - 1: Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning helps us to
understand how our responses to one situation become attached to new situations.
For example a smell might remind us of time when we were a kid. Classical
conditioning explains how we develop many of our emotional responses to people,
events or "gut level" reactions to situations. Now situations may bring out an old
response because the two have become connected. "Pavlov" for classical
conditioning: was interested in studying digestion.
- A "learned" response is called " conditioned" response"
- Conditioned stimulus: Something that triggers.
- One is natural ( unconditioned)
Watson and Behaviorism: He believed that most of our fears and other emotional
responses are classically conditioned. He believed that parents could be thought to
help shape their children's behavior and tried to demonstrate the power of classical
conditioning with his famous experiment of rat and Albert child.
2: Operant conditioning: Is another learning theory that implies a more conscious
type of learning than that of classical conditioning. A person (or animal) does
something to see what effects it might bring. Operant conditioning describes how we
repeat behaviors because they pay off for us. Skinner and reinforcement: Skinner
believed that we learn best when our actions are reinforced (the outcome could be
good ex: child cleaning room could get a cookie and more likely to do it again than a
child who is gone unnoticed.) Positive and negative reinforcement: Positive
reinforcement involves adding something to the situation in order to encourage a
behavior ex: of cleaning room. Negative reinforcement would be children whining
and parents give them something to stop. There are both negative and positive form
of reinforcement and punishments. In operant conditioning the term positive
5: Describe the evolution-based perspectives on development and briefly compare
them to the previous three perspectives. How is it is different? Describe the
developmental systems perspective and its four major assumptions. - ANSWER: - The
evolutionary perspective of personality and individual proposes that our
personalities and individual differences have evolved in the past to provide us with
some form of adaptive advantage in the content of survival and production. 4 major
assumptions are:
1: Human development occurs throughout the life span from birth through death.
2: Human development shapes and is shaped by intersections between people and
the contents in which the live including family and community.
3: Lifespan human development is not static across time, but varies in different
historical periods.
, 4: Normal human development is diverse; there is great normal variation in the way
people change across the lifespan.
6: Describe the scientific method and why it is important. What is the difference
between applied research and basic research? What is the difference between
quantitative data and qualitative data? How is exploratory research different from
descriptive research? - ANSWER: - The scientific method is the specific procedure
researchers use to ask and explore scientific questions in a way that makes
connections between observations and leads to understanding. Developmental
researchers gather and interpret information using the scientific method and steps in
the research process to describe, explain, and optimize human development across
the lifespan.
Step 1: Select topic
Step 2: Focus question
Step 3: Design study
Step 4: Collect data
Step 5: Analyze data
Step 6: Interpret Data
Step 7: Mobilize Knowledge
- Basic research is a research designed to create fundamental knowledge about the
world
- Whereas applied research is a research designed to examine specific contexts to
solve a concrete problem or address policy, it has a direct and practical purpose.
- Quantitative data is the information in the form of numbers.
- Qualitative data is the information in the form of words, pictures, sounds, visual
images or objects.
- Exploratory research is in examination into an area in which a researcher wants to
develop initial ideas and more focused research questions. It is often the first stage
of research requiring creative, flexible, and open approaches to the area of study
and a willingness to embrace conjectures.
- Descriptive research is a research methods used to observe record and describe
behavior and environments; it is not for making cause- effect explanations. The goal
of descriptive research is to describe the phenomenon of interest from as many
perspectives a possible in as much detail as possible.
7: Define correlation and how it is used in developmental research. What is the
significance of the third variable? Describe the logic of the experimental approach
and its primary advantage. - ANSWER: - Correlation research aims to uncover the
strength of a relationship between two or more variables. Some correlations are
positive, meaning that both variables change in the same direction, whereas others
are negative, meaning that one variable increases as the other decreases.
- The third variable is a confounding variable influencing the correlation between
variables, or a variable having an unintended impact on the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.
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