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Week 1: Dutch Spatial planning: current system and policyDutch Spatial Planning System (up to 2024)
• National government -> National vision (policy strategy)
• Provincial government -> Provincial vision (policy strategy)
• Municipal government -> Municipal vision (policy strategy)
• Municipal government -> Land-use plans for entire area
• Land-use plan may be drawn up by national or provincial government and imposed upon a
municipality
The land-use plan
• To develop new or change existing buildings or infrastructure, a permit is required
• A permit has to be rejected if the building/structure does not t in the land-use plan (...or does
not meet other requirements, e.g. building ordinance)
• If there is no valid land-use plan, there may be no grounds to reject a permit
Dutch Spatial Planning Policy
The national government takes responsibility for 13 national interests regarding:
• competitiveness
• accessibility
• liveability and safety
and:
• When national interests are at stake
• In the case of international obligations
• When multiple provinces/neighboring countries are involved
National Policy Strategy for Infrastructure and Spatial Planning (2011)
• Main aim: support economic development
• National urbanization principle: ‘ladder for sustainable urban development’: a 3-step procedure
for planning new urban development:
1. First, determine whether there is a regional demand
2. In ll development (including restructuring of existing locations) prior to green eld development
3. New multimodal locations prior to car-dependent sites
Dutch Regional/Local Spatial Planning Policy
Provinces and municipalities: responsible for urban development at the regional and local level
respectively, mainly regarding:
• Housing
• Employment
• Retail (restrictive regarding out-of-town development)
• Education
• Public transport
• Recreation and Sports
• Green facilities
• Etc
January 2024: From Spatial planning to Environmental planning
2023: new Environment and Planning Act
Combines and simpli es many environmental laws regarding:
fi fi fi fi
,• Land use, Infrastructure, The environment, Nature, Water
• More in line with European regulations
the Environment and Planning Act (EPA)
• Governments (national, provincial, municipal, and District Water boards) develop environmental
visions and supporting rules regarding the development of the area
• All municipal land use plans will be replaced by one environmental plan -> more cohesion
• Higher governments may ‘instruct’ lower governments
• A digital information system provides all relevant information (maps, policies, rules, etc.)
• Only one permit is needed for complex projects
the Digital Information System
• The system contains information about environmental policy, rules, and physical situation
• Citizens, companies, and governments can check what is allowed at a speci c location and
whether you need an Environmental permit in order to undertake a speci c action
• Apply for an environmental permit
EPA and Participation
• In order to obtain improved decision making and to obtain more support for governmental
decisions…
• Governments have to involve relevant stakeholders (e.g., citizens, companies, civil society
organizations, other governments, ...) when preparing policies and plans
• Governments have to report how stakeholders were involved, and what the results are
• If citizens, companies, or other organizations ask for a permit, they have to consult stakeholders
in their environment
2020: National Strategy on Spatial Planning and the Environment* Also called National
Environmental Vision (Nationale omgevingsvisie: NOVI)
Priorities:
• Space for climate adaptation and energy transition
• Sustainable (circular) economic growth
• Strong and healthy cities and regions
• Futureproof development of rural areas (CO2, nitrogen)
Requires sound cooperation between all governments and between the public and private
sectors.
2020: National Strategy on Spatial Planning and the Environment
Urbanization policy
1)Good-quality living environments
2) Chart out demand for all functions (houses, o ces, ...)
3) Assess e ects on environment and for mobility system
Choices for urbanization, such as:
• If possible, accommodate demand in existing urban areas
• Otherwise, adjacent to existing urban areas with good PT
• Otherwise, locations elsewhere in the urban agglomeration, again with good Public Transport
• High building densities near public transportation hubs
• ... and more
European territorial policy
- There is no department of spatial planning or something alike
- But there is ‘territorial cohesion policy’ in addition to economic and social cohesion policy
- 1984: agreement on common territorial development principles
ff ffi fi fi
, - 1999: European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP)
- 2008: Green Paper on Territorial Cohesion
- 2011: Territorial Agenda of the European Union 2020
- 2020: Territorial Agenda 2030, a future for all places
Territorial Agenda 2030 - Priorities
A Just Europe that o ers future perspectives for all places and people (reduce inequalities):
• Better balanced territorial development utilizing Europe’s diversity -> polycentric development
• Convergent local and regional development, less inequality between places
• Easier living and working across national borders
Territorial Agenda 2030 - Priorities
A Green Europe that protects common livelihoods and shapes societal transition (climate
change):
• Better ecological livelihoods, climate-neutral and resilient towns, cities and regions -> green and
blue networks, increase resilience of places impacted by climate change
• Strong and sustainable local economies in a globalized world -> energy transition
• Sustainable digital and physical connectivity of places -> high-speed xed and mobile
communication networks, Trans-European Networks, MaaS
Week 2:
Literature: Changing methods of location planning for retail companies
Phase I – Pre-GIS Era (1960s–1980s)
In the initial phase, retail location planning methods were based on simpler, often subjective
approaches:
- Gut Feeling: Senior sta made decisions based on personal intuition and experience, often
without structured data or models. Although this method o ered exibility, it was highly subjective
and di cult to standardize, leading to inconsistent outcomes.
- Checklist Approach: This technique was more structured, involving prede ned checklists to
evaluate a location’s viability based on factors such as population structure and center size.
Checklists were based on basic demographic data and local attributes but lacked analytical
depth.
- Analogue Techniques: This method involved comparing potential new sites with existing, similar
stores to estimate potential sales. While useful, it depended heavily on nding adequate analogs
and could not accommodate new or unique location factors.
Limitations of these early techniques included subjectivity, lack of standardized data use, and
di culty in applying these methods to large-scale expansion strategies.
Phase II – GIS and Spatial Modelling (1980s–1990s)
With the advent of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in the 1980s, retail planning entered a
more data-driven phase:
- GIS Technology: GIS allowed for sophisticated spatial analysis by integrating demographic and
geographic data to map customer distribution, evaluate catchment areas, and visualize
competitor locations. Retailers could now perform geocoded analyses to assess potential sales
within de ned travel times or distance bu ers from a new location.
- Geodemographic Pro ling: Retailers used geodemographic data to segment populations into
speci c types, tailoring store o erings to meet localized demand. Systems like the UK’s ACORN
ffi fiffi fi ff fi ff ff ff ff fl fi fi fi
, pro led areas based on Census data and lifestyle information, helping retailers target speci c
consumer segments more accurately.
- Spatial Interaction Models: In the later part of this phase, spatial interaction models became
popular. These models predicted shopping patterns by accounting for variables like travel
distance and store attractiveness. This period also introduced concepts like "fair share" and
"dominant store analysis," which helped allocate expected revenue across multiple stores in a
region.
These advancements allowed retailers to move beyond intuition-based decisions, using
structured data to improve the accuracy of location planning.
Phase III – Advanced Modelling and Optimization (1990s onward)
In the third phase, retail companies started leveraging advanced optimization techniques,
responding to increased market competition and retail saturation:
- Optimization Models: Retailers began to use optimization procedures to determine ideal store
locations based on sales maximization, market share, and other objectives. These models
employed mathematical programming, integrating complex constraints like minimum sales
volumes, drive-time restrictions, and proximity limits.
- Genetic Algorithms (GAs): A subset of data mining, GAs introduced inductive models that re ned
themselves through iterative mutations. Retailers used GAs to predict site success more exibly
by continually adjusting models until they best matched existing data, providing a more nuanced
approach compared to traditional models.
- Internationalization and Distribution Network Analysis: The document notes that increasing
market saturation drove many retailers to explore international markets and optimize existing store
networks. Retailers could now analyze which areas had low market penetration and evaluate the
potential impact of opening new stores.
This phase emphasized exibility and precise modeling of consumer behavior, enabling retailers to
optimize locations dynamically. Retail location planning became critical in strategic decision-
making, focusing not only on new site selection but also on restructuring networks to align with
shifting consumer demands and new retail trends like e-commerce and disintermediation.
Conclusions
Clarke concludes that modern retail location planning requires a hybrid approach, combining
various methods to accommodate the complexity of consumer behavior and market competition.
Retailers must consider local nuances, and advanced spatial models are necessary to provide a
competitive edge in saturated markets. The document argues that as the retail environment
continues to evolve, location planning will play a crucial role in helping companies adapt to
changing demands and optimize their networks for pro tability.
Guimarães (2017): Urban regeneration is a proactive approach to counter urban decline by
creating integrated strategies to address economic, social, physical, and environmental issues.
It’s used globally across varied contexts, from the UK to Romania and Japan, with initiatives that
target speci c issues. These include cultural projects, housing developments, notable buildings,
or events like the 2012 London Olympics.
Retail-led urban regeneration focuses speci cally on revitalizing town centers through retail-
based interventions. This can involve creating new retail formats, enhancing existing commercial
areas, or professionalizing retail management. Examples include Birmingham’s Bullring and
Southampton’s West Quay shopping centers, which boosted local vitality and improved city
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