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Summary History of Europe and the modern world since 1750 - Midterm
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Complete summary of History of Europe and the modern world since 1750, midterm. It includes every topic up to week 3
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Revision – HisMoW MidtermLecture 1
History of the Modern World is the analysis of societies and human relationships and how these
interacted, changed, and became “modern” since the eighteenth century.
History is seen as the “continuation of politics with other means”, encompassing, societal, economic,
political structures, and cultural repertoires.
Enlightenment (17th – 18th century, Age of Reason)
Reality is knowable and determined by natural forces rather than supernatural ones; importance of
reason and evidence over religious dogma; the rational, experimental, and empirical scientific method
can answer all questions concerning nature and society; nature and society can be controlled and
engineered; belief in progress (“optimistic beliefs in the historical advance of reason, science, education,
social reform, tolerance, and enlightened government”); shift towards modernity.
Deism: philosophical belief that puts meaning to religion in an enlightened and rationalistic way; it
dismisses organized religion, rather advocating for tolerance towards different and individual ways of
thinking about God (Churches and pastors are seen as ignorant and do not fit in the modern society);
conceptualized God as “The Watchmaker” or “almighty intelligence” who does not interfere with the
universe.
Immanuel Kant (1725-1804): let go of everything that is seen as knowledge but not obtained objectively
Rene Descartes (1596-1650): advocated for cartesian dualism (systemic doubt of observation and ideas,
stressing the need for skepticism); emphasized logical reasoning and mathematics as foundation of
knowledge; promoted deduction (from general to particular; top-down logic) and scientific method.
Francis Bacon (1562 – 1626): systematic observation, experimentation, and reasoning; advocated for
empiricism; promoted induction (from particular to general; bottom-up logic).
Denis Diderot: “Encyclopedie” (1751-1772) was the first encyclopedia in Europe that was available for
the people; a comprehensive work aiming to gather and disseminate knowledge.
Voltaire (1694-1778): criticized organized religion (“Christianity is the most ridiculous religion”).
Republic of letters: a transnational intellectual community sharing ideas; education is emphasized;
women played a big role (Mme. Geoffrin); independent thinking and public opinion was created.
,Natural law: philosophy that states that certain rights are inherent just by the fact that your are human;
these laws should always be honored as every human deserves them.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): state of nature and natural law concepts; without any government or
regulations there is the state of nature and natural law; war of all against all; he advocated for the
monopoly on power and absolutism (everyone should give up their monopoly of power to one person).
John Locke (1632-1704): he believed that people could collaborate; emphasized personal liberties,
property rights, and labor; advocated for the consent of the governed, parliamentary representation, and
limited government; promoted constitutionalism.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): critiqued the French hierarchical society through “The Social
Contract” (proposed that government is based on a rational and conscious agreement, either between
the governed and the government, or among people themselves; he criticized the idea that monarchs
were divinely empowered); introduced the concept of the General Will as the collective interest of all
the people; Rousseau rejected political representation, advocating instead for popular sovereignty,
where each individual identifies with the General Will.
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755): “L’Esprit des Lois” (1748), advocating for the division of
governmental powers to protect liberty from absolute rulers.
Trias Politica: protecting liberties in society by dividing governmental functions and powers into 3
separate parts that have their own tasks and check each other (Legislative, Executive, Judiciary).
Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794): an “intellectual in politics” advocating for the rights of women,
abolition of slavery, asserted natural equality (difference between men and women are socially
constructed), critiqued colonialism (using natural rights and utilitarian arguments).
Enlightened despotism: secular perspective by hereditary rulers; focused on curtailing medieval forces
and customs, centralizing government, taxes, infrastructure, laws; it meant to increase the power and
control of the despots while creating a better livable society; however, the reforms were often limited
by the resistance of the Church, nobility, and other traditional powers that did not want to lose their
powers; this sometimes led to increased social unrest and problems; it eventually came to be one of the
sources of the French Revolution.
, Lecture 2
Industrial Revolution (1760 – 1820/40, in England)
Causes: technological innovations and increase of scale (e.g., Spinning Jenny and Watt’s Improved
Steam Engine), gradual disappearance of Commons and Open Fields, Enclosure Movement (which
resulted in increased production and concentration of wealth; e.g., Jethro Tull), bigger population (e.g.,
potato), better health hygiene (e.g., soap, better obstetric practices), lower death rate (e.g., Jenner’s
smallpox vaccine), and urbanization (due to excess labor; creates industrial working class).
Luddites (1811 – 1812, in England)
Led by the mythical figure Ned Ludd, protesting against the machines themselves; note that is not an
early socialist movement, as it did not address issues like social inequality.
The French Revolution (May 5th, 1789 – November 9th, 1799, in France)
Inspiration: influence of the rationalistic ideas of the Enlightenment (Montesquieu’s Trias Politica,
natural law, and sovereignty of the people), the United States Constitution (1787-1789), Rousseau’s
critique of the 18th century French hierarchical society (The Social Contract and General Will as the
collective interest of the people, above all individual ambitions and desires; people enter this contract
without force or pressure; once within the contract, collective enforcement of the general will); Alexis
de Tocqueville (“Revolution of rising expectation”: revolutions occur when grievances seem
intolerable admits the possibility of change).
Timeline (May 5th, 1789 – November 9th, 1799)
Preamble: Estates General (May 1789: third estate wants to change the way of representation); Tennis
Court Oath (June 20th, 1789: third estate members start to call themselves the National Assembly);
Storming of the Bastille (July 14th, 1789: stormed the symbol of tyranny and absolutism of the king).
First Stage (1789 – 1791: victory of the bourgeoisie): August decrees (equality in office but not for
women (criticized by Olympe de Gouges), and abolition of the feudal system and Church tithes);
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (“Men are born and remain free and equal in rights”,
influenced by Enlightenment); Constitution of 1791 (France becomes a constitutional monarchy,
National Assembly vested legislative power, while the king and his ministers’ powers decreased, census
suffrage increased, Le Chapelier Act, and new governmental bodies); Nationalization of the Catholic
Church (clergy became civil servants, and the Pope condemned the revolution); The Jacobin Club
(radical wing of the revolution, pushed for more extreme changes, ‘sans-culottes’)
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