Important information: in Lecture 4 (p. 51) I made a mistake under the point philosophical position. The second claim is supposed to be "Narrative idealism" (and NOT narrative realism)
All lectures start with the questions we had to prepare in advance. Please keep in mind that the answers are my su...
Theory III: The Theory of History in Practice
Note: All lectures start with the questions we had to prepare in advance. Please keep in mind
that the answers are my subjective answers and therefore, you can also have a differing
opinion on some topics. The preparations are followed by the lectures of Hellemans and
Peters according to their structure.
Content
Theory III: The Theory of History in Practice............................................................................1
Week 1: Critical Thinking & Theory..........................................................................................1
Lecture 1: Critical Thinking & Theory.....................................................................................14
Week 2: Laws + Intentions.......................................................................................................20
Lecture 2: Laws & Intentions....................................................................................................30
Week 3: Language & Authority................................................................................................36
Lecture 3: Language & Authority.............................................................................................41
Week 4: Storytelling.................................................................................................................47
Lecture 4: Storytelling..............................................................................................................49
Week 5: Mentality.....................................................................................................................54
Lecture 5: Mentality..................................................................................................................58
Week 6: Visuality......................................................................................................................64
Lecture 6: Visuality...................................................................................................................66
Week 7: Ethics..........................................................................................................................70
Lecture 7: Ethics.......................................................................................................................72
Week 1: Critical Thinking & Theory
Preparations/ Questions for Lecture 1:
Goal: get acquainted with the 8 elements of thought in the compass and the nine intellectual
standards to evaluate the elements. During the entire course, starting from week 1, you are
supposed to be able to reproduce all of them, including examples and applications. In other
words: by the end of the first week you must master the language of critical thinking.
Method: read and watch, make the short assignments and bring them to class for further
discussion.
Important information from the Q&A Session: Elements/ compass serve to analyse texts
clearer grasp of what = important in theory relate evidence to interpretation (theory =
important in assumptions + concepts) Compass helps in structuring your mind to become
more critical and finding the focal point of i.e. your BA-Thesis. WE DO NOT NEED TO
APPLY IT IN THE EXAM!
,Patricia Leistner
1. Watch the following videos on the elements of thought, and ask yourself: how does
each element apply to historical thinking i.e. in what sense is historical thinking, to
begin with your preparations for the thesis an example of critical thinking? First,
make sure that you understand notions of 'critical thinking' and the 8 elements of
thought, then have a look at the intellectual standards).
You can find all the videos here: https://www.youtube.com/user/GaryMeegan/videos
Make sure that you follow the following order.
Answer:
It is important to realise that every person is always socially + culturally situated (s. Point of
View). Likewise, Information should not be taken for granted but should be critically
analysed (i.e. what is the background of the author? Is this information reliable?). The use of
concepts can help in structuring an analysis while in the same time laying a basis for our
research.
The elements of thought + historical thinking are mostly similar in the way that both start with
asking questions about a certain topic. These questions are either investigated by starting with
information or assumptions. In the end we are hoping to find an answer to our questions +
assumptions which might have an impact on our/ others’ thinking/ acting in the present/
future.
What is Critical Thinking? A Definition (Dr Richard Paul)
- Many definitions
- Richard Paul: the art of analysing + evaluating thinking with a view to improving it
Critical thinking = an art acquired over time, look for patterns
Understand how someone is thinking
How thinking affects how we + others see the world (analysing)
Analysing taking thinking apart how is it constructed look for artefacts of
reasoning (to explain how a person acts)
After you understood how someone is thinking you look at the quality (evaluation)
On what is the reasoning based? Can we rely on the conclusions?
Understand how the mind of someone is working
Needs practice can help to make better decisions/ become better pwesons
The Elements of Thought - An Introduction (developed by Dr Richard Paul)
- Model of thinking help us understand how we can divide the different parts of
thinking
Take apart our thinking + that of ours
- Thinking implies doing many things at the same time
1) Point of view (Pv1) who we are, what we value
Frames of reference
Perspectives
Orientations
2) Purpose (Pr2) why are we thinking about this?
Specific
Realistic
Measurable
,Patricia Leistner
Significant
3) Question at issue (Qi3) what are we trying to answer?
Focused, simple
Define, significant
Relevant, answerable
4) Information (In4) the information of what we are thinking about
Data
Evidence
Observations
5) Interpretations + Inference (Ii5) about the ‘thing’ that we are thinking about
Conclusions
Solutions
6) Concepts (Cn6) What concepts do we need to know to understand the ‘thing’
Theories
Definitions
Laws
Principles
Models
7) Assumptions (As7) Base our thinking on assumptions assumptions that we
assumed to be true already
Presuppositions
Axioms
Taking for Granted
8) Implications + Consequences (Ic8) of our reasoning
What follows logically
Effects
- Dr Paul placed these 8 elements in a wheel because:
All of them are equally important + each is used when we are thinking
Point of View in Critical Thinking
- Point of view = how we see things + how we look at ideas, each other + the world
A person’s most basic beliefs, values + biases
- It makes sense to understand our thinking by starting with Pv1
Look at frames of reference (1), perspectives (2) + orientations (3)
1) We see the same thing but look at it differently
Frames limit what we tend to know + understand
2) What is our slant on things? How do people look at life from their particular
perspective?
3) Where are we coming from + where are we headed?
How does your orientation affect your point of view?
- Point of view = generally consistent (doesn’t change easily)
In relation to historical thinking:
- Your personal background influences your world view + thus the questions we are
asking
- History is an art because interpretations differ from person to person
Purpose in Critical Thinking
,Patricia Leistner
- We usually do things for a reason + with a goal in mind
- A purpose is always specific clearly state what is your focus
It should be measurable we can know of it’s achieved or not if we don’t achieve
our purpose then the goal also isn’t reached
- Check if the purpose is realistic a reasonable purpose can be accomplished
- Always ask the question of the purpose is significant (does it make a difference?)
- Purpose helps to concentrate our thinking
In relation to historical thinking:
- In historical thinking/ research we aim at answering a research question (the goal)
- We ask something significant in terms of coming up with a new research question
(what has been done + what still needs to be researched)
In this process we try to be as precise as possible
Question at Issue in Critical Thinking
- Humans naturally ask questions that’s how we learn about the world
There are simple questions we can know the answers to (i.e. 1+1)
There are more complex questions (i.e. about Global Warming, pollution)
These questions open up different ways of thinking + thus different answers
These questions = most important + involve critical thinking
- The question needs to be focused so you know where you are going
Make it simple to understand even though it might be difficult to answer
Define all terms that might be confusing to make the question clear
- Make sure your question = significant, relevant + answerable
Is this really the question you want to focus on?
In relation to historical thinking:
- A research question guides the problem formulation + should be as precise as possible
(time frame, place, concern)
Information in Critical Thinking
- To make a decision, we need information (info)
Information consists of hard facts that give us clues to what’s happening
Info comes from data, facts, experiences, statistics, diagrams, etc. (anything that is
concrete + can be verified)
- To be useful info needs to be reliable (reflect reality + be free from bias)
Assess where the information is coming from
- Build our thinking on info being strong + logical
To make your claim strong look for info that opposes yours (helps to rethink your
reasoning)
- Be systematic about how you collect info
Check what you think you know is true
- Organise info so that it makes sense to you look for patterns
As more info is found look at how it effects the logic of what you’re looking at
- Keep looking until you feel your info = complete
- Info = the basis upon which we construct our reasoning
,Patricia Leistner
In relation to historical thinking:
- Information backs up the historical inquiry data is necessary to answer the research
question
- We need to understand the context of the information (i.e. the Donation of Constantine
= a forgery) to assess in how it can be helpful for historical thinking
Interpretation + Inference
- Inference = a conclusion we come to by analysing information (= inductive reasoning
looking at facts + then making a conclusion)
- Interpretation = an inference from a specific point of view (same information can lead
to different interpretations thus, leading to different solutions to a problem)
- The conclusion offers a solution to a question/ an issue
- Interpretation + inferences must be logical (ask yourself: is this the only solution? Is
this the best solution? Could you be wrong?)
In relation to historical thinking:
- A conclusion sums up the main findings but also takes the researcher further (i.e. what
has not been done in this paper)
It is based on the information analysed in the chapters + answers the research
question posed in the introduction
Concepts in Critical Thinking
- When we explore a problem, concepts come into play
- Concepts give us a common language so we can understand things in the same way
- Concepts = abstract ideas helping us to organise the world
Group things so we can talk about the common qualities they have (i.e. trees)
Look which concepts are needed to understand a problem
- Be able to explain + define a concept precisely + clearly (to explain the problem)
- Concepts create order
In relation to historical thinking:
- Concepts support our claims + offer a general framework
Assumptions in Critical Thinking
- All reasoning starts with assumptions + upon those we build our reasoning
Assumptions = what we presume without evidence the stronger the
assumptions, the stronger the thinking
- Pv1 also includes assumptions + those are about world views
Assumptions = beliefs upon we base the logic of what is being reasoned about
- Assumptions = several elements:
1) presuppositions (what we believe to be true) i.e.: “Let’s suppose that …”
2) Axioms (Grundsätze) what is self-evidently true + doesn’t need to be proved
(i.e. a red rose is red)
, Patricia Leistner
- Critical thinking can start with assumptions looking for info to support those
(deductive reasoning) or we start with information + upon those create assumptions
(inductive reasoning)
In relation to historical thinking:
- Historical thinking can start with an assumption upon which we start researching
Sometimes we assume that something is ‘true’ but by looking into data we can be
proven differently
We should always be critical of our assumption + not assume that they are
universal
Implications and Consequences in Critical Thinking
- When we come to our conclusions then we need to look at what logically comes next
if we act on that conclusions
If the conclusion is correct, how might people think or act?
- Implications = what we think of next what follows logically the line of our thinking
(ideas coming from ideas)
- Consequences = related to action what happens when we act on interpretations/
inferences
A consequence = an effect on how people act (actions coming from ideas)
- Make sure implications + consequences make logical sense follow same way of
reasoning
- Think into the future how your conclusions affect how you or others might think/
act
In relation to historical thinking:
- Historians speak about the past, sometimes to bring justice to the victims of
(historical) atrocities/ prevent that wrongdoings in the past occur again
Thus, historical thinking can have an impact on the present/ future
2. To evaluate your answers in 1 read the section on the elements in the glossary in the texts
for week 1. Compare your answers under 1 to the examples given in the glossary. Do you
notice similarities and differences?
Answers in 1) Glossary
It is important to realise that every person
is always socially + culturally situated (s.
Point of View). Likewise, Information
should not be taken for granted but should
be critically analysed (i.e. what is the
background of the author? Is this
information reliable?). The use of concepts
can help in structuring an analysis while in
the same time laying a basis for our
research.
The elements of thought + historical
thinking are mostly similar in the way that
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