Social Research Methods: Pearson International Edition
A summary of all the reading material from Leiden University Public Administration in The Hague for Introduction to Social Science Research (ISWO) of the first year (2024)
Why do Research?
Social science research yields valuable information and expands our understanding,
but it is not 100 percent foolproof. It does not guarantee perfect results every time or
offer “absolute truth.” This may be why some people distrust research-based
knowledge.
Methodology means understanding the entire research process, including its social-
organizational context, philosophical assumptions, ethical principles, and the political
impact of new knowledge from the research enterprise.
Methods refer to the collection of specific techniques we use in a study to select
cases, measure and observe social life, gather and refine data, analyze data, and
report on results.
Alternatives to social science research:
- Personal experience and common sense
Example: In my experience, men just are not as concerned about clothing or
appearance as much as women are, so it makes sense that women do the laundry.
When my friends and I were growing up, my mother and their mothers did the
laundry, and female friends did it for their boyfriends but never did the men do it
- Experts and authorities
Example: Experts say that as children, females are taught to make, select, mend,
and clean clothing as part of a female focus on physical appearance and on caring
for children or others in a family. Women do the laundry based on their childhood
preparation
- Popular and media messages
Example: movies and television commercials show women often doing laundry and
enjoying it, but men hate it and mess it up. So, women must be doing laundry
because they enjoy it and are skilled at it. It is what we see everywhere and what
everyone says
- Ideological beliefs and values
Example: the proper, natural place division of labor is for women to take charge of
the home, caring for children and overseeing household duties, including cooking,
cleaning, and doing the laundry
We often make the following five errors in our everyday decisions, but the research
process tries to reduce such errors
- Overgeneralization = statement that goes far beyond what can be justified
based on the data or empirical observations that one has
- Selective observation = process of examination in a way that reinforces
preexisting thinking rather than in a neutral and balanced manner
- Premature closure = act of making a judgment or reaching a decision and
ending an investigation before gathering the amount or depth of evidence
required by scientific standards
- Halo effect = occurrence that allows the prior reputation of persons, places or
things to color one’s evaluations rather than evaluating all in a neutral, equal
manner
, - False consensus = a tendency to project one’s wat of thinking onto other
people. In other words, the person assumes that everyone thinks like he or
she does
Science refers to both a system for producing knowledge and the knowledge that
results from that system. Science evolved over centuries and continues to slowly
evolve. It combines assumptions about the world; accumulated understandings; an
orientation towards knowledge; and many specific procedures, techniques and
instruments. The system of science is most tangible and visible as a social institution,
the scientific community
The knowledge that science yields is organized into theories and grounded in
empirical data. Let us examine three key terms:
- Theory = a system of interconnected ideas that condenses and organizes the
knowledge about the social world and explains how it works
- Data = numerical (quantitative) and non-numerical (qualitative) information
and evidence that have been carefully gathered according to rules or
established procedures
- Empirical = description of what we can observe and experience directly
through human senses or indirectly using techniques that extend the senses
Pseudoscience = a body of ideas or information clothed in the jargon and outward
appearance of science that seeks to win acceptance but that was not created with
the systematic rigor or standards required of the scientific method
Junk science = a public relations term used to criticize scientific research even if it is
conducted properly that produces findings that an advocacy group opposes.
Innumeracy = the lack of quantitative literacy; not having an ability to reason with
numbers and other mathematical concepts
Scientific literacy = the capacity to understand and apply scientific knowledge,
concepts, principles, and theories to solve problems and make decisions based on
scientific reasoning and to interact in a way that reflects the core values of the
scientific community.
People who lack quantitative and scientific literacy easily accept pseudoscience and
make judgement errors. Innumeracy also lead journalists to report inaccurate news
and to readers lacking sufficient skepticism to evaluate the reports. People who lack
these types of literacy are poor at assessing risk.
Scientific community = a collection of people who share a system of attitudes,
beliefs and rules that sustains the production and advance of scientific knowledge.
The community is organized like a series of concentric circles. Its rings are based on
the productivity and engagement of researchers.
Norms of the scientific community = informal rules, principles, and values that
govern the way scientist conduct their research. -> universalism, organized
skepticism, disinterestedness, communalism, honesty.
,Norms of the Scientific Community:
- Universalism = regardless of who conducts research and of where it was
conducted, the research is to be judged only on the basis of scientific merit.
- Organized skepticism = scientists should not accept new ideas or evidence
in a carefree, uncritical manner. They should challenge and question all
evidence and subject each study to intense scrutiny. The purpose of their
criticism is not to attack the individual but to ensure that the methods used in
research can stand up to close, careful examination
- Disinterestedness = scientists must be neutral, impartial, receptive, and open
to unexpected observations and new ideas. They should not be rigidly wedded
to a particular idea or point of view. They should accept, even look for,
evidence that runs against their positions and should honestly accept all
findings based on high-quality research
- Communalism = scientific knowledge must be shared with others; it belongs
to everyone. Creating scientific knowledge is a public art, and the findings are
public property, available for all to use. The way in which the research is
conducted must be described in detail. New knowledge is not formally
accepted until other researchers have reviewed it and it has been made
publicly available in a special form and style
- Honesty = this is a general cultural norm, but it is especially strong in scientific
research. Scientists demand honesty in all research; dishonesty or cheating in
scientific research is a major taboo
Grinnel (1987:125) stated: “Most people learn about the scientific method rather than
about the scientific attitude. While the scientific method is an ideal construct, the
scientific attitude is the way people have of looking at the world. Doing science
includes many methods; what makes them scientific is their acceptance by the
scientific collective.”
The scientific orientation tends to be precise and logical, adopt a long-term view, be
flexible and open ended, and be willing to share information widely. By contrast,
nonscientific thinking is impatient with pursuing great accuracy or rigor, wants definite
immediate answers to particular issues that are current now, and tends to be rather
possessive and apprehensive about freely sharing everything.
Scholarly journal article = an article in a specialized publication that has members
of the scientific community as its primary audience; a means to disseminate new
ideas and findings within the scientific community.
Blind review = a process of judging the merits of a research report in which the peer
researchers do not know the identity of the researcher, and the researcher does not
know the identity of the evaluators in advance.
The social scientific research process essentially transforms our ides, theories,
guesses, or questions into a finished product with real value: new knowledge. The
new knowledge can improve our understanding of the social world and its operation.
, Ragin (1994a:92) explained how the approach complement each other as data
condensers or enhancers: “The key features common to all qualitative methods can
be seen when they are contrasted with quantitative methods. Most quantitative data
techniques are data condensers. They condense data in order to see the big picture.
Qualitative methods, by contrast, are best understood as data enhancers. When data
are enhanced, it is possible to see key aspects of cases more clearly.
Quantitative approach to social research:
1. Select a topic
2. Focus the question
3. Design the study
4. Collect data
5. Analyze data
6. Interpret the data
7. Inform others
Qualitative approach to social research:
1. Acknowledge self and context
2. Adopt a perspective
3. Design a study
4. Collect data
5. Analyze data
6. Interpret data
7. Inform others
Theory and research
A source of confusion regarding theory is that most of us encounter and use similar-
looking but nontheory explanations in daily life. Theories are explanations but not the
only source of explanations.
Social theory is a system of interconnected ideas. It condenses and organizes
knowledge about the social world. We can also think of it as a type of systematic
story telling that explains how some aspects of the social world works and why
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