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Summary Organisational Behaviour By Alblas
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A summary of the book Organisational Behaviour by Gert Alblas and Ella Wijsman. All chapters for the PGT are covered in this summary.
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Organisational behaviourChapter 1: Individual and organisation
1.1 Behaviour and motivation
In this chapter, an in-depth discussion on the subject of motivation is given. But first, behaviour.
Behaviour deals with the interactions between human beings. The kind that managers like is
productive behaviour. Studying behaviour means more than explaining behaviour, it also deals with
predicting and influencing behaviour.
Motivation means the sum total of motives applicable to an individual at a certain time. These
motives can lead to the willingness to make certain efforts.
There are three different theories as to the origin of motivation. Motivation is determined either by:
Internal forces (needs)
External forces (situation)
A desire to balance internal and external forces
1.1.1 Motivation through internal forces
Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, calls internal forces “tendencies”. These tendencies are innate,
have a physical origin. Modern psychologists call internal forces “needs”. There are different theories
about needs.
Maslow’s theory
Maslow argues that there are five needs which form the basis for any person’s behaviour.
1. Physiological needs. These are things that are necessary
to sustain life.
2. Safety needs. These are safety, security and protection.
3. Social needs. These include human contact, friendship,
love and a sense of belonging.
4. Need for esteem. Esteem encompasses appreciation
and respect by others.
5. Self-actualisation needs. These are knowledge, the
pursuit of truth and wisdom, self-development and
personal growth.
Maslow’s theory is based on two premises:
1. Deprivation of needs leads to activation. If there is perceived deprivation, an unsatisfied need,
people will take action.
2. Needs are hierarchically structured. Maslow is of the opinion that there is a hierarchy of needs
that is the same for all people.
The first premise applies to the first four needs, which is why they are called “deficiency needs”. This
is not the case with the last need, the need for self-actualisation, which is of a fundamentally
different nature.
,Alderfer’s theory
According to Alderfer, there are three types of needs. These are:
1. Existential needs. These relate to material security. The need for good working conditions and a
regular salary are existential needs. Existential needs are comparable to Maslow’s psychological
and safety needs.
2. Relational needs. These are the needs for good relations with other people and for love and
friendship. People like to belong and they strive for appreciation and recognition. Relational
needs can be compared with Maslow’s social needs and need for recognition.
3. Growth needs. These are linked to opportunities for self-development. Growth needs
correspond largely to Maslow’s self-actualisation needs. The need for self-respect is counted
among the growth needs by Alderfer, but for Maslow this need is part of the need for
recognition.
Unlike Maslow, Alderfer argues that different types of need can be present simultaneously.
Moreover, he posits the frustration-regression hypothesis: the more satisfaction of higher needs is
frustrated, the more important the lower-level needs become. Like Maslow, Alderfer is of the
opinion that deprivation of needs lead to activation.
Mclelland’s theory
In every organisation, differences can be seen in the effort put in by different employees. According
to McLelland, every individual develops their own profile of needs in the first years of life. In such a
profile, there is a dominant need which determines a person’s orientation, independently of the
situation in which persons find themselves. It becomes a stable characteristic. McLelland identifies
three needs profiles:
1. Need for achievement. If this need is dominant, people to which it applies are primarily focused
on performing well. They will look for challenging situations that allow them to demonstrate
their capabilities.
2. Need for power. People in whom this need is dominant strive for influence and control over
others. They try to attain positions in which these can be achieved.
3. Need for affiliation. If this need is dominant, people are focused on the creation of good
relationships with others.
Unlike the preceding theories, McLelland assumes that needs are not innate but learned. He does
assume that learning takes place at a young age and that the dominant pattern remains stable.
1.1.2 Motivation through external forces
Behaviour is also driven by a person’s situation. In order to achieve something, a child will try out
different behaviours. These do not always produce the desired results but occasionally, certain
behaviours have the intended effect. Behaviour followed by a desired effect is more likely to be
adopted in another similar situation compared to behaviour that elicits no effect or a negative effect.
Thorndike calls this the law of effect: the consequences of an action determine whether someone
has the inclination to repeat the action or not. If the consequences are attractive, there is positive
reinforcement. If the consequences are unattractive, there is negative reinforcement.
A certain action that is always followed by a positive reinforcement will automatically be taken in a
similar situation. This action has become conditioned and is included in the behavioural repertoire.
The consequences of a certain action depended on the characteristics of the situation. These
,characteristics are called stimuli. In the process of conditioning, a link is first created between a
stimulus and a response. Once this link has been established the situation automatically elicits the
conditioned action.
The type of behaviour elicited or not elicited by a given situation is connected to the process of
reinforcement. By means of systematic reinforcement, the behaviour can be conditioned. In
organisations this learning process can be used to make sure that employees behave in the correct
manner and so make a worthwhile contribution to the team.
1.1.3 Motivation through a desire to balance internal and external forces
The first two motivations for behaviour are opposites. On the one hand, people display behaviour
because it is elicited by the situation. This is a pulling force. On the other hand, people are
encouraged into behaviour by their needs, which is a pushing force. Both approaches suggest that
people have no choice. In a number of cases, the behaviour that people display is the outcome of a
process of consideration and choice. Both the needs of the person and the possibilities that the
situation offers play an important role.
Before people make a choice, they consider the situation they are in, and consider the opportunities
they have of achieving certain goals or result. They also estimate the consequences of certain
behaviour. The motivation to display certain behaviour is the result of a process of deliberation.
Expectancy theory
The process of deliberation that determines certain behaviour is described by Vroom in his
expectancy theory. According to his theory, whether people are inclined to make an effort in their
work depends on various considerations:
1. The connection between effort and performance. This is the estimated likelihood that a certain
effort will lead to good performance.
2. The connection between performance and returns. This is the extent to which someone believes
that good performance will actually lead to attractive returns. Sometimes that connection is
clear, because there is a clear reward system, but in many cases it is a matter of waiting to see if
certain efforts lead to more appreciation.
3. The value of the returns that certain effort produce. Work can provide various positive returns,
but there can also be negative returns. The value of the returns is the sum of the advantages and
disadvantages these extra efforts produce.
According to the expectancy theory, the more likely people estimate there to be a likelihood of
achieving positive returns and the more valuable they consider those returns, the greater their effort
will be.
The relationship between effort, returns and values is shown in the figure below.
, Employees within an organisation like to know whether their efforts lead to positive outcomes and
thereby to other returns they consider valuable.
It would seem as though Vroom’s expectancy theory is about the more or less objective
consideration of the chances of success and the value of returns. This is, however, not the case. It is
mainly about subjective considerations and estimates – in particular:
1. The extent to which the relationship between effort and returns is thought to be reasonable
2. The extent to which people regards themselves as capable of producing a good performance.
Attribution theory
The attribution theory by Vroom and Kelley explains why people are willing to make an effort. If
people think that they can achieve success with their efforts, they will make efforts. They are less
willing to make efforts if they think that no positive results can be achieved. Attribution is a process
by which people try to find out the causes of their own behaviour and the behaviour of others. They
do so by comparing themselves to others in the same situation and considering whether there is
possibly a set pattern to their failure or success.
The results of the considerations determine whether a person should seek the cause of their success
or failure in themselves or in the circumstances. If someone comes to the conclusion that they are
the only one who does something wrong or well, and that is frequently the case, they will seek the
cause in themselves. This is called internal attribution.
If others also regularly fail in comparable circumstances, then the causes should rather be sought
outside of oneself. If people ascribe their success or failure to circumstances, it is called external
attribution.
When people ascribe their success or failure to themselves, this influences their self-image. Someone
with self-confidence does not avoid challenges. Someone who always performs poorly in certain
situations in comparison to other will feel incompetent in that area and will have a tendency to shy
away from those situations.
As people prefer to have a positive self-image, their internal attribution does not always be entirely
objective. They have a tendency to be selective and attribute positive characteristics to themselves
and negative characteristics to environmental factors. This is called self-serving bias. In addition to
this self-serving bias, there is fundamental attribution error. This error arises from the tendency to
attribute someone else’s behaviour to their characteristics rather than to external circumstances.
1.1.4 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
To motivate people to perform well, it is important to have insight into their motives. We can identify
two types of motive: intrinsic and extrinsic.
Work-intrinsic motives to perform well relate to the challenge posed by the work itself and to
satisfaction in the work. It is more about taking part than about winning. Intrinsic motivation can be
connected to the need for self-development.
Work-extrinsic motives to perform well relate to the returns that can be achieved. It is more about
winning, less about taking part.
How people function in organisations is dependant not only on their needs but also on their abilities
and competences, personality, attitudes and values.
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