The Scientific Revolution
Modern science has been brought about through long term advances, a historian said the scientific revolution was “the real origin both of the
modern world and the modern mentality.” From 1540-1690, West society began to gain its most distinctive traits.
I. Scientific Thought in 1500
A. Natural philosophy was one of the most important disciplines prior to the Sci Rev
1. Many scholars and practitioners were involved in aspects that come eventually form science
2. Natural philosophy - study of nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned
3. 1500s Aristotle’s (4th cent BCE) ideas were the basis of natural philosophy
a) Medieval theologians (i.e. Thomas Aquinas) combines Aristotelian philosophy with Christ
doctrines
(1) Initial Aristotelian: motionless earth in center of universe w/ 10 concentric spheres
orbiting it; first 8 spheres embedded (moon, sun, five known planets, fixed stars)
(2) Middle Ages: 2 spheres added
(3) W/ Christ doctrines: beyond 10th sphere was Heaven with throne of God and souls of the
saved; angels kept spheres moving in perfect circles
B. Aristotle’s cosmology made intellectual sense but didn’t explain certain phenomena
1. Aristotle couldn’t answer: Why did planets appear to move backwards sometimes?
2. Ptolemy (Greek scholar of 2nd cent) offers a solution
a) Ptolemy: planets move in small circles (epicycles) that each moved in turn along a larger circle
(deferent)
(1) Ptolemaic astronomy was less elegant than Aristotelian’s neat orbits + required
complex calculations BUT provided surprisingly accurate model for predicting
planetary motion
C. Aristotle's views, revised by medieval philosophers, also dominated “physics” and “motion on earth” ideas
1. Aristotle distinguished btwn world of celestial spheres and sublunar world (earth)
a) Spheres consisted of perfect, incorruptible “quintessence” (5th essence)
b) HOWEVER sublunar world only has 4 imperfect, changeable elements
(1) Light elements (air, fire) naturally move up; heavy elements (water, earth) down
(2) Elements could be mixed together and be affected by outside forces (humans)
2. Aristotle: believed a uniform force moved an object at a constant speed and would stop once the force
was removed
D. Aristotle’s ideas about astronomy and physics were accepted w/ revisions for 2000 years because…
1. Offered an understandable, common sense explanation for what the eye actually saw
2. His science as interpreted by Christ theologians fit neatly with Christ doctrines
a) Established home for God and place for Christ souls
b) Put human beings at center of universe - made them critical link in “great chain of being” that
stretched from throne of God to lowliest insect on earth
(1) This approach to natural world is a branch of theology - reinforced religious thought
II. Origins of the Scientific Revolution
A. Sci Rev draws on long-term developments in Euro culture and from Arabic scholars
1. Medieval university
a) By 1200s, permanent unis w/ professors and large student bodies established in west Euro to
train lawyers, doctors, church leaders society required
b) By 1300, philosophy is next to law, medicine, and theology
(1) Medieval philosophers developed a limited but real independence from the theologians
and sense of free inquiry
(a) Nobly pursued body of knowledge - tried to arrange it meaningfully with
abstract theories
B. Leading universities establish new professorships of mathematics, astronomy, and physics (natural philosophy)
within their faculties of philosophy
1. Prestige of these new fields was low BUT critical thinking was now applied to scientific problems by a
permanent community of scholars
C. Renaissance stimulates scientific progress
1. Recovered texts - Arabic translations of original Greek/Latin works translated into Euro vernacular
2. Mathematics - translations accompanied by learned Arabic commentaries that went beyond ancient
learning
3. Renaissance patrons - fund scientific investigations (not just art and literature)
4. Renaissance artists - use realism and geometry for 3D perspective; encourage scholars closely observe
and use math to describe natural world
, 5. Printing - faster and less expensive way to spread knowledge across Euro
D. Navigational problems during age of overseas travel is another factor in Sci Rev
1. 1484 king of Portugal appoints mathematicians to perfect latitude tables
2. Other seafaring inventions: telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, air pump
a) Better instruments → more accurate observations → important new knowledge
E. Contribution to Sci Rev of practices relegated beyond science (like astrology)
1. Usually: changing relationships between planets and stars influenced events on earth led to interest in
astronomy
2. UNTIL the Sci Rev: astronomers were also astrologers; devised horoscopes
a) Astrology: used as diagnostic tool in medicine; forms a regular part of curriculum in med school
F. Practice of magic and alchemy remains tradition for ppl in Sci Rev
1. Little to distinguish/some crossover between tricks of magicians and experiments of scientists
a) Magic: believed objects possessed hidden (occult) qualities where they could affect other
objects
(1) Belief in occult qualities (numerology/cosmic harmony) - not antithetical to belief in
God
(2) IN CONTRAST: Adherents believed only a divine creator could infuse universe w/ such
meaningful mystery
III. The Copernican Hypothesis
A. Polish cleric Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) and first great departure from medieval system
1. Conserative man always drawn to intellectual and cultural vitality of Italian Renaissance
2. Studied at University of Krakow → goes to Italy → studies astronomy, medicine, church law at the
Universities of Bologna, Padua, Ferrara
3. He saw: professional astronomers still depended on the work of Ptolemy for their most accurate
calculations
a) BUT felt Ptolemy’s cumbersome and sometimes inaccurate rules detracted from majesty of a
perfect creator
b) Copernicus preferred ancient Greek idea: sun, not earth, was at center of universe
B. Copernicus works on his Copernican hypothesis from 1506-1530 while working in East Prussia church
1. Not a professional astronomer or university professor - limited instruments and free time for research
a) Copernicus theorized: stars and planets revolved around fixed sun w/o questioning Aristotelian
belief in crystal spheres or idea the circular motion was divine
b) 1543 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres - published year of death for fear of mocking
C. The Copernican hypothesis had big scientific and religious implications Copernicus did not expect
1. CopHyp: puts stars at rest; “moved at night” b/c of the earth’s rotation
a) Counters: crystal spheres moving stars around earth
2. CopHyp: suggested super big universe (earth always moves around sun but stars stay the same size)
3. CopHyp: earth is just another planet
a) Counters: basic idea of Aristotelian physics (earthly world was different from heavenly)
b) Counters: where was Heaven and the throne of God?
D. Religious leaders attack CopHyp
1. Prots: John Calvin and Martin Luther condemn Copernicus
a) Luther: CopHypo was counter to Bible - “...so did Joshua bid the sun stand still and not the earth”
2. Caths: had a milder reaction
a) Cath Church: never had held to literal interpretations of Bible UNTIL in 1616 it officially declared
CopHyp false
E. Other events also influence doubts about traditional astronomical ideas
1. 1572 new star shine very bright for 2 years - distant exploding star
a) Contradicted: heavenly spheres were unchanging (perfect)
2. 1577 new comet cuts straight path through supposedly impenetrable crystal spheres
3. Time for “the radical renovation of astronomy”
IV. Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo: Proving Copernicus Right
A. Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) agrees with Copernicus
1. Always interested in astronomy
2. Discovery of exploding star of 1572 - establishes himself “Euros leading astronomer”
3. Built most sophisticated observatory of his day w/ generous grants from the king of Denmark
B. Brahe builds a new observatory in Prague as patroned by HRE Rudolph II
1. Rudolphine Tables - new and improved tables of planetary motions
2. Brahe observes stars and planets with naked eye - complete and accurate data
