Exam Notes, SLK210
ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGEING
CHAPTER 3: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
3.2.1.2 Attention
Large Amounts of information enter the sensory register (physiological point or sensory organs
receive information). This is the first step in information processing.
- To process information one needs to pay attention to the incoming sensory stimulus.
- Attention is the state in which cognitive resources are focused on certain aspects of the
environment rather than the on others.
- Attention is a short lived cognitive state and is necessary to subsequent and more detailed,
complex analysis of incoming information.
Multiple processes are involved in attention, which manifests itself in different levels of attention:
Sustained attention
The ability to concentrate on a task without being distracted. Declines with age.
Selective attention
The ability to concentrate on a task while there are other distracting stimuli present.
Switching attention
This refers to alternating attention between two more tasks. More specifically, individuals must
carry out two different tasks, shifting between them according to some rule, or follow a cue. This
switching or shifting of attention reflects the demands of holding two sets of task rules in
working memory and managing their application.
Divided attention
Is required when the individual has to attend to and process more than one source of
information at the same time. e.g. Driving.
Executive attention
Involves aspects of thinking that include the planning of actions, allocating attention to goals,
detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with new or
difficult circumstances.
Therefore, tasks involving attention require the individual to focus or select cognitive resources
for a specific task or stimulus input. Various theories have been proposed to explain the possible
decline or change in attentional processes during the ageing process:
The attentional resources theory
Attentional resources refer to the amount of attention available to perform cognitive tasks that
require effort and where the ability to distribute attention is under the control of the individual.
This theory suggests that the capacity and efficient distribution of attention resources declines
with age. True for some cognitive tasks as well as everyday multitasking.
Michaela Doveton 1
, Exam Notes, SLK210
The inhibitory deficit theory
This theory focuses on the ability to ignore or suppress irrelevant/interrupting information or
stimuli and to focus on relevant stimuli or goals. The ability to select relevant information is
preserved, older adults ability to block out irrelevant stimuli tends to be affected negatively
(slowed responses, increase in slips of action and thought, difficulty in remembering details).
Inhibitory efficiency can be affected by the time of day and relate to the cicardian cycle.
Neurological approach
According to the neurological approach, a decline in frontal lobe functioning, which is
associated closely with executive functioning such as planning and the selection of important
stimuli from distracting stimuli, may also play a role in attentional processes. It seems that older
adults lose the accuracy and speed of functioning necessary to maintain control over attentional
processes.
3.3.1 Intelligence
One of the core controversies regarding intelligence is what precisely intelligence is; that is, how
it should be defined. Some experts view intelligence as the ability to understand and solve
problems, or to have a vast knowledge base. Others define it as logical, abstract and creative
thinking, while others define it as the ability to make the most of what one has and to enjoy life.
3.3.1.1 One intelligence, or many?
Intelligence is multifaceted; that is, having different features or components. Probably the most
important contribution of the multifaceted or multiple intelligence approach is that it argues that
people can be intelligent in different ways, and that everyday intelligent behaviour is an
important part of intelligence.
- Robert Sternberg (1985-2015) and Howard Gardener (2000-2015) were 2 psychologists who
made important contributions to the multifaceted or multiple intelligence approach.
- Robert Sternberg developed his Triarchic theory of intelligence because he believed that
intelligence is more than what is measured by intelligence tests. He defines intelligence as the
skills and knowledge needed for success and within ones own sociocultural context.
Sternberg proposed 3 types of intelligence:
1. Analytical (componential) Intelligence
Refers to how a person processes and analyses information. It includes abstract thinking and
logical reasoning. This is the traditional notion of intelligence and is associated with academic
achievement. Involves mental processes such as abstract planning, strategy selection, focused
attention, information processing and verbal and logical skills.
2. Creative (experiential) intelligence
Involves a persons ability to generate new ideas; in other words, to apply their existing
knowledge to new problems. It involves the capacity to be intellectually flexible and creative.
3. Practical (contextual or tacit) intelligence
Concerns how a person reacts the environment. Involves peoples ability to adapt to or shape
their environments to make it more acceptable. “Common sense/Street smarts”.
Michaela Doveton 2
, Exam Notes, SLK210
Gardeners 8 intelligences:
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE EXAMPLES
Linguistic ability Reading comprehension, writing, understanding
spoken word, vocabulary
Logical - mathematical intelligence abstract thinking, reasoning skills and solving
mathematical problems
Spatial intelligence ability to understand relationships between objects,
to get from one place to another, to read a map
Musical Intelligence sensitivity to sound patterns, ability to compose
music, to play a musical instrument, to appreciate
musical structure
Bodily - Kinaesthetic intelligence skills at dancing, athletics, eye-hand coordination,
bodily control.
Interpersonal intelligence social skills, sensitivity to others behaviour, motives
or emotions
Interpersonal intelligence self-understanding, understanding ones own feeling
and inner life
Naturalistic intelligence understanding patterns in the natural world of
plants and animals.
Criticism:
1 - lacks sufficient research evidence.
2 - deterring the presence and level of the individual intelligences is subjective and may be
assessed differently by different evaluators.
3 - some believe that some of the notions such as musical intelligence, are an ‘aptitude; or
‘talent’, rather than intelligence.
4 - remains an open question about how many intelligences there actually are and how long the
list of intelligence will become.
5 - variety of intelligences can differ from culture to culture.
3.3.1.2 Fluid and crystallised intelligence
- Raymond Cattell developed this theory.
- According to Cattle, all intellectual tasks make use of a general intellectual ability, but hey also
use more specialised skills, depending on the specific task.
- Cattell divided these skills into 2 general categories called fluid intelligence and crystallised
intelligence.
1. Fluid Intelligence (GF)
Refers to the ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations and identify patterns. It
refers to the ability to understand relationships between the components of a problem and to
use those relationships to solve the problem. Therefore, GF is flexible and is not domain
specific. It is used whenever the solution to a problem cannot be retrieved from memory and
therefore must be figured out on the spot. It is ‘raw’ intelligence, meaning that it is largely a
function of the integrity of the CNS and is relatively independent of social influences and
culturally based learning experiences.
examples: acquiring new skills, solving new problems, imagination, creativity.
Michaela Doveton 3
, Exam Notes, SLK210
2. Crystallised intelligence (GC)
Refers to the ability to use skills, knowledge and experience that one has learnt or acquired
previously. Involves the knowledge that a person has accumulated over their lifetime. Therefore,
it is a function of education, experience and exposure to a specific cultural environment. GC
represents a person store of information and strategies that can be applied to problems that
have been encountered before. It involves recalling solutions from memory rather than
reasoning trough an unfamiliar problem. The term Crystallised is used to indicate that with
exposure to knowledge and experience, ones skills and abilities become solidified or hardened.
examples: speaking ones native language, knowing processes and rules.
3.3.1.3 Intelligence and the ageing process
The following questions are investigated:
1. Does intellectual functioning decline, stay the same or improve over adult life span ?
2. If there is age-related decline, are some the abilities more vulnerable than others?
3. Do all adults exhibit the same intellectual decline at the same rate?
4. Can age-related decline be reversed ?
5. Are intellectual abilities measured by intelligence tests and abilities needed for functioning
in a job or profession and for research purposes the same as the abilities required for
everyday functioning ?
A typical finding was what was called the classic ageing curve: Intellectual functioning rose
to a peak in early adulthood, followed by an inevitable decline.
Classic ageing pattern; which referred to certain intellectual abilities, was also identifi ed:
The decline was especially dramatic in the abilities related to fl uid intelligence (think
abstractly , reason, identify patterns etc). The decline typically started in the 20’s and steadily
declined with increasing age.
These abilities are considered to be age-sensitive abilities. A decline in the abilities related
to especially crystallised intelligence (acquired knowledge) started somewhat later and
decline dramatically after age 65. These abilities are considered to be age-sensitive.
3.3.1.4 Measuring age changes in intelligence
- Early studies on age-related changes on intelligence relied on cross-sectional methods
(people of different age groups are tested and compared at the same point in time).
- These studies indicated that intellectual skills started to decline in early adulthood.
Read over the study done by K.Warner Shaie page 145
3.3.1.5 Everyday cognition
Researchers began to question whether psychometric tests were appropriate means to assess
the cognitive functioning of older adults.
Three observations supported this argument:
1. Cognition is considered a fundamental tool serving adaptive functions to promote the
survival of individuals. Most older adults retain their abilities to function effectively in their
daily lives.
Michaela Doveton 4
ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGEING
CHAPTER 3: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
3.2.1.2 Attention
Large Amounts of information enter the sensory register (physiological point or sensory organs
receive information). This is the first step in information processing.
- To process information one needs to pay attention to the incoming sensory stimulus.
- Attention is the state in which cognitive resources are focused on certain aspects of the
environment rather than the on others.
- Attention is a short lived cognitive state and is necessary to subsequent and more detailed,
complex analysis of incoming information.
Multiple processes are involved in attention, which manifests itself in different levels of attention:
Sustained attention
The ability to concentrate on a task without being distracted. Declines with age.
Selective attention
The ability to concentrate on a task while there are other distracting stimuli present.
Switching attention
This refers to alternating attention between two more tasks. More specifically, individuals must
carry out two different tasks, shifting between them according to some rule, or follow a cue. This
switching or shifting of attention reflects the demands of holding two sets of task rules in
working memory and managing their application.
Divided attention
Is required when the individual has to attend to and process more than one source of
information at the same time. e.g. Driving.
Executive attention
Involves aspects of thinking that include the planning of actions, allocating attention to goals,
detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with new or
difficult circumstances.
Therefore, tasks involving attention require the individual to focus or select cognitive resources
for a specific task or stimulus input. Various theories have been proposed to explain the possible
decline or change in attentional processes during the ageing process:
The attentional resources theory
Attentional resources refer to the amount of attention available to perform cognitive tasks that
require effort and where the ability to distribute attention is under the control of the individual.
This theory suggests that the capacity and efficient distribution of attention resources declines
with age. True for some cognitive tasks as well as everyday multitasking.
Michaela Doveton 1
, Exam Notes, SLK210
The inhibitory deficit theory
This theory focuses on the ability to ignore or suppress irrelevant/interrupting information or
stimuli and to focus on relevant stimuli or goals. The ability to select relevant information is
preserved, older adults ability to block out irrelevant stimuli tends to be affected negatively
(slowed responses, increase in slips of action and thought, difficulty in remembering details).
Inhibitory efficiency can be affected by the time of day and relate to the cicardian cycle.
Neurological approach
According to the neurological approach, a decline in frontal lobe functioning, which is
associated closely with executive functioning such as planning and the selection of important
stimuli from distracting stimuli, may also play a role in attentional processes. It seems that older
adults lose the accuracy and speed of functioning necessary to maintain control over attentional
processes.
3.3.1 Intelligence
One of the core controversies regarding intelligence is what precisely intelligence is; that is, how
it should be defined. Some experts view intelligence as the ability to understand and solve
problems, or to have a vast knowledge base. Others define it as logical, abstract and creative
thinking, while others define it as the ability to make the most of what one has and to enjoy life.
3.3.1.1 One intelligence, or many?
Intelligence is multifaceted; that is, having different features or components. Probably the most
important contribution of the multifaceted or multiple intelligence approach is that it argues that
people can be intelligent in different ways, and that everyday intelligent behaviour is an
important part of intelligence.
- Robert Sternberg (1985-2015) and Howard Gardener (2000-2015) were 2 psychologists who
made important contributions to the multifaceted or multiple intelligence approach.
- Robert Sternberg developed his Triarchic theory of intelligence because he believed that
intelligence is more than what is measured by intelligence tests. He defines intelligence as the
skills and knowledge needed for success and within ones own sociocultural context.
Sternberg proposed 3 types of intelligence:
1. Analytical (componential) Intelligence
Refers to how a person processes and analyses information. It includes abstract thinking and
logical reasoning. This is the traditional notion of intelligence and is associated with academic
achievement. Involves mental processes such as abstract planning, strategy selection, focused
attention, information processing and verbal and logical skills.
2. Creative (experiential) intelligence
Involves a persons ability to generate new ideas; in other words, to apply their existing
knowledge to new problems. It involves the capacity to be intellectually flexible and creative.
3. Practical (contextual or tacit) intelligence
Concerns how a person reacts the environment. Involves peoples ability to adapt to or shape
their environments to make it more acceptable. “Common sense/Street smarts”.
Michaela Doveton 2
, Exam Notes, SLK210
Gardeners 8 intelligences:
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE EXAMPLES
Linguistic ability Reading comprehension, writing, understanding
spoken word, vocabulary
Logical - mathematical intelligence abstract thinking, reasoning skills and solving
mathematical problems
Spatial intelligence ability to understand relationships between objects,
to get from one place to another, to read a map
Musical Intelligence sensitivity to sound patterns, ability to compose
music, to play a musical instrument, to appreciate
musical structure
Bodily - Kinaesthetic intelligence skills at dancing, athletics, eye-hand coordination,
bodily control.
Interpersonal intelligence social skills, sensitivity to others behaviour, motives
or emotions
Interpersonal intelligence self-understanding, understanding ones own feeling
and inner life
Naturalistic intelligence understanding patterns in the natural world of
plants and animals.
Criticism:
1 - lacks sufficient research evidence.
2 - deterring the presence and level of the individual intelligences is subjective and may be
assessed differently by different evaluators.
3 - some believe that some of the notions such as musical intelligence, are an ‘aptitude; or
‘talent’, rather than intelligence.
4 - remains an open question about how many intelligences there actually are and how long the
list of intelligence will become.
5 - variety of intelligences can differ from culture to culture.
3.3.1.2 Fluid and crystallised intelligence
- Raymond Cattell developed this theory.
- According to Cattle, all intellectual tasks make use of a general intellectual ability, but hey also
use more specialised skills, depending on the specific task.
- Cattell divided these skills into 2 general categories called fluid intelligence and crystallised
intelligence.
1. Fluid Intelligence (GF)
Refers to the ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations and identify patterns. It
refers to the ability to understand relationships between the components of a problem and to
use those relationships to solve the problem. Therefore, GF is flexible and is not domain
specific. It is used whenever the solution to a problem cannot be retrieved from memory and
therefore must be figured out on the spot. It is ‘raw’ intelligence, meaning that it is largely a
function of the integrity of the CNS and is relatively independent of social influences and
culturally based learning experiences.
examples: acquiring new skills, solving new problems, imagination, creativity.
Michaela Doveton 3
, Exam Notes, SLK210
2. Crystallised intelligence (GC)
Refers to the ability to use skills, knowledge and experience that one has learnt or acquired
previously. Involves the knowledge that a person has accumulated over their lifetime. Therefore,
it is a function of education, experience and exposure to a specific cultural environment. GC
represents a person store of information and strategies that can be applied to problems that
have been encountered before. It involves recalling solutions from memory rather than
reasoning trough an unfamiliar problem. The term Crystallised is used to indicate that with
exposure to knowledge and experience, ones skills and abilities become solidified or hardened.
examples: speaking ones native language, knowing processes and rules.
3.3.1.3 Intelligence and the ageing process
The following questions are investigated:
1. Does intellectual functioning decline, stay the same or improve over adult life span ?
2. If there is age-related decline, are some the abilities more vulnerable than others?
3. Do all adults exhibit the same intellectual decline at the same rate?
4. Can age-related decline be reversed ?
5. Are intellectual abilities measured by intelligence tests and abilities needed for functioning
in a job or profession and for research purposes the same as the abilities required for
everyday functioning ?
A typical finding was what was called the classic ageing curve: Intellectual functioning rose
to a peak in early adulthood, followed by an inevitable decline.
Classic ageing pattern; which referred to certain intellectual abilities, was also identifi ed:
The decline was especially dramatic in the abilities related to fl uid intelligence (think
abstractly , reason, identify patterns etc). The decline typically started in the 20’s and steadily
declined with increasing age.
These abilities are considered to be age-sensitive abilities. A decline in the abilities related
to especially crystallised intelligence (acquired knowledge) started somewhat later and
decline dramatically after age 65. These abilities are considered to be age-sensitive.
3.3.1.4 Measuring age changes in intelligence
- Early studies on age-related changes on intelligence relied on cross-sectional methods
(people of different age groups are tested and compared at the same point in time).
- These studies indicated that intellectual skills started to decline in early adulthood.
Read over the study done by K.Warner Shaie page 145
3.3.1.5 Everyday cognition
Researchers began to question whether psychometric tests were appropriate means to assess
the cognitive functioning of older adults.
Three observations supported this argument:
1. Cognition is considered a fundamental tool serving adaptive functions to promote the
survival of individuals. Most older adults retain their abilities to function effectively in their
daily lives.
Michaela Doveton 4
