Summary Youth Culture in a Digital World Exam Notes
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Course
201800006
Institution
Universiteit Utrecht (UU)
The document includes detailed answers to all reading questions throughout the course, with all of the mentioned concepts in detail, and a structured overview on all topics across the seven weeks.
The exam emphasizes media theories discussed in the lectures and/or literature, particularly tasks
such as recognizing theories in examples and explaining a given theory. Therefore, be sure to study
the theories both ways: recognizing and applying the correct theory to examples, and explaining the
theory itself.
Reading Questions:
Lecture 1
Gentile & Semsa (2003) Developmental approaches in understanding media effects
- Which developmental approach can you use to explain why adolescents show increased
interest in celebrities and interactions with influencers during adolescence?
- Based on Kohlberg’s conventional moral reasoning, adolescents require a moral compass in
order to navigate their path in society, and a source of inspiration can be imitating, copying or
straight up refusing what behaviors they perceive from people on the internet. Most of said
people will belong to a group that is widely known, influential and very much present online,
which perfectly applies to celebrities. Since the goal of adolescence is to establish a sense of ego,
associating with people and taking on personality traits from their “idealized” lives.
- The authors suggest that online spaces, like Blogs and Myspace, provide chances for
people to explore and express their identities. Now, think about a newer platform, like
TikTok. How do you think it offers opportunities for self-presentation?
- It is a space where individuals can express their “thoughts, ideas, visions, or fantasies that they
attribute to their virtual representations.” By posting certain content or engaging with said videos
or posts one makes a statement about what ideologies or themes they align with and what they
consider to be an interest for them, via liking, sharing or creating such content.
Lecture 2 Media effect theories
Valkenburg & Oliver (2019) Media effects theories: an overview.
- What are the “evergreen” theories and why are they still so popular?
,- Six media effects theories that kept their relevance relatively well, remaining widely accepted
and popular as ways to understand how the media influences society in general over the course
of time, namely:
1. Cultivation Theory (Gerbner, 1969)
2. Agenda Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw, 1972)
3. Diffusion of Innovations Theory (Rogers, 1962)
4. Uses and Gratifications Theory (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch,
1973; Rosengren, 1974)
5. Social Learning/Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1986)
6. Media System Dependency Theory (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur,
1976)
- What three core features distinguish contemporary media effects theories from the earlier
ones? Briefly describe what each core feature entails.
- Contemporary media effects theories put an emphasis more on the complexities of media and
its messages. It details how interactivity and meaning making is a two way street, receivers also
shape the media that is being released, not just passively interpret it. Furthermore, media has to
be analyzed not purely on materiality but also very much based on the context which it is
perceived in. Stating that not all media is received and understood alike by audiences, it’s not a
simple causality like older researchers have suggested.
Lecture 3 Online gaming culture
Sirola et al.–2021-the role of virtual communities in gambling and gaming behaviors: a systematic review
1. Based on the review’s findings on differences concerning the role of virtual communities in gaming and
gambling, what are some potential implications in the prevention of gambling and gaming problems?
- Social mechanisms, such as social influence and social learning, taking place in virtual gambling and
gaming environments. Raising awareness of social underpinnings and influential mechanisms behind
gambling and monetary gaming would be important for players, parents and health care professionals
when aiming to reduce excessive behavior and money consumption. Limiting players’ in-game social
interaction would be required to reduce excessive money spending,
Pirrone et al. – 2023- Why we can’t stop
1. What are the four types of rewards in video games and how do they increase users’ login Frequencies?
, 1. Variable-ratio rewards: Existing literature has shown that variable-ratio reinforcement produces
the most consistent and steady response and is the least susceptible to extinction (e.g., quit
playing a game)
2. Contingencies rewards: These bonuses leverage a well-known principle of behavioral economics:
operant conditioning of a given behavior by positive reinforcement, in this case, increasing logins
by associating them with a reward (e.g., a free gift of in-game goods). While claiming the reward,
users associate the positive feedback with the log- in behavior and tend to associate this positive
feeling with the game.
3. Meta- achievement: Through these systems, players are rewarded for accomplishing the varied
requirements on a game’s list of specific achievements. Achievement points are designed to keep
the player involved with the video game after the game has been completed, either by replaying
the game or playing the game online
4. Social aspects of playing: Players want to interact with friends and to keep up with their social
connections through video games. Moreover, these social interactions are sometimes rewarded as
team play is often essential to win the game, particularly in online games. Previous research has
demonstrated that people spend more time on gaming and get more engaged in games activities to
receive social rewards.
2. The results show that the effects of some types of rewards on problematic gaming were stronger for
individuals with certain characteristics (moderation effects). According to these results, who are
specifically at risk for developing problematic gaming when exposed to contingencies rewards?
- Hyperactive people have been found to positively moderate the effect of contingencies rewards on
problematic game play.
1. How do video games provide opportunities for identity development?
- Via a malleable and transformative interactions in which players influence, experience, and
embody their avatars through gameplay and how this type of exploration forms their own
self-perceptions.
Sawyer, S. (2020). Oh Me, Oh My! Identity Development Through Video Games. In: Kowert, R. (eds)
Video Games and Well-being.
2. In which degree of freedom in virtual roleplaying are both Social Learning Theory and
Self-Discrepancy Theory reflected, and why?
- Aspects of virtual roleplaying that correspond with the psychological degree of freedom in these
situations include identity exploration and expression.
3. How would you customize your avatar (using examples from the text), and how do Social Learning
Theory and Self-Discrepancy Theory come into play with each skill and appearance choice?
- In creating my avatar, I would focus on two key elements: skills and appearance, as emphasized in the
text. I would design an avatar that reflects my strengths while compensating for my weaknesses, aligning
, with the concept of creating an idealized version of myself. Additionally, I would embrace the freedom
offered by the virtual world to escape real-world limitations and craft a unique and distinctive character.
Generally, the choices in skills and appearance allow players to observe and emulate behaviors, aligning
with Social Learning Theory, while also addressing gaps between their actual, ideal, and ought selves, as
described in Self-Discrepancy Theory.
Lecture 4 Misinformation
Breakstone, J., Smith, M., Wineburg, S., Rapaport, A., Carle, J., Garland, M., & Saavedra, A. (2021).
Students’ civic online reasoning: A national portrait. Educational researcher,50(8), 505-515.
1. How did students' digital competency get measured, and how does that differ from previous
studies?
- The research team launched a 2-year project to develop assessments that measured Civic Online
Reasoning (COR). They developed a range of tasks through an iterative process of prototyping, expert
review, and piloting with students in classrooms across the country. Furthermore, they used think-aloud
protocols to ensure that the assessments tapped the intended skills. These tasks asked students to evaluate
real digital sources, ranging from Facebook videos to websites of advocacy groups pretending to be
nonpartisan think tanks. This differs from previous approaches as those researches rarely asked students
to investigate and assess real sources, coming short with detailed data on their media literacy abilities.
2. How did the three groups differ in their examination of websites, and who was better at
evaluating the content and why?
- Students from urban areas had a significantly better understanding of evaluating sources than their
suburban and rural peers, mostly due to their general education and socioeconomic backgrounds.
3. How do the authors explain the findings that students with higher grades, higher socioeconomic
status, and from urban areas performed better than their peers with lower grades, lower
socioeconomic status, and from rural areas?
- Socioeconomic status, especially maternal education plays a role in increased performance, combined
with race and ethnicity. They would say, based on my understanding between the lines, that a better
socioeconomic status equals better chances and accessibility to information, education and general
comprehension of current affairs, which would in turn lead to a higher opportunity to develop media
literacy.
4. How would you describe your own digital competency? Can you provide an example of news or a
website that you did not trust, and how did you notice?
- I believe I partially employ the technique of lateral reading for websites I have not visited before, but for
the most part I usually trust in what I read, but never 100%. There is no such thing as completely
objective information, even in democracies. There is one Hungarian news portal called Blikk which I
remember seemed very shady, mostly due to the excessive amount of ads and celebrity gossip that
appeared next to articles about war, political conflicts and anything which to me seemed “more relevant”
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