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Summary Criminology third year notes. Part B, Psychocriminology. Study unit 2 - chapter 5.
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Third Year Criminology Notes for sale. Psychocriminology, Human Aggression and Violence. Study notes.
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PSYCHOCRIMINOLOGYKRM 310: PART B
STUDY UNIT 2.
CHAPTER 5: HUMAN AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE.
Explain the value of aggression for human beings and indicate
how the views regarding the origin of aggression differ.
Violence and aggression go hand in hand, but that does not mean that all aggression is violent
in the physical sense of that word. Some argue that aggression has been instrumental in
helping people survive. Through centuries of experience, humans learned that aggressive
behaviour enabled them to obtain material goods, land and treasures, to protect property and
family; and to gain prestige, status and power. Many are quick to point out that both
historically and in the present, aggressive behaviour is at the root of numerous social and
individual problems.
By studying aggression, psychologists have made substantial contributions to society’s
efforts to understand both violent and nonviolent crime as well as violent behaviour that may
not necessarily be defined as crime (e.g. legitimate uses of force).
Perspectives of human nature emerge very clearly from the scholarly and research literature
on aggression. Some writers and researchers believe that aggressive behaviour is basically
biological and genetic in origin. The psychological, genetic contention is accompanied by
compelling evidence that explanations of human aggressive behaviour may be found in the
animal kingdom as a whole. On the other hand, researchers who subscribe learning viewpoint
believe that, while some species of animals may be genetically programmed to behave
aggressively, human beings learn from the social environment. Other researchers remain on a
theoretical fence, accepting and rejecting some aspects of each argument. Research does
indicate, however, that the level of aggressive behaviour demonstrated by an eight-year-old
appears to remain largely unchanged well into adulthood for many individuals, regardless of
gender.
If aggression and violence represent a built-in, genetically programmed aspect of human
nature, we may be forced, as Baron (1983) suggests, toward a pessimistic conclusion.
Furthermore, we should design the environment and society in such a way as to discourage
violence, including administering immediate and aversive consequences (punishment) when
it is displayed.
If, on the other hand we believe that aggression is learned and is influenced by a wide range
of situational, social and environmental variables, we can be more optimistic. Aggression is
not an inevitable aspect of human life. Once we understand what factors play major roles in
its acquisition and maintenance, we will be able to reduce its occurrence by addressing these
factors. There are positive and negative aspects of human aggression. What we are concerned
about is the inappropriate expression of aggression, particularly as displayed in violent
,behaviour… the focus is on the negative aspects or the forms of aggression that are not
socially approved.
Give a critical discussion of the problems concerning the
definition of aggression.
DEFINING AGGRESSION: the task of defining human aggression is difficult.
Some social psychologists define aggression as the intent and attempt to harm another
individual, physically or socially, or in some cases, to destroy an object. This definition
seems adequate for many situations, but it has several limitations.
Refusing to speak does not fit well, since it is not an active attempt to harm someone,
nor is blocking someone’s entity.
Most psychologists place these two behaviours in a special category of aggressive
responses and call them passive-aggressive behaviours, since they are generally
interpreted as aggressive in intent, although the behaviour is passive and indirect.
Passive-aggressive behaviour is generally irrelevant when we discuss crime, since the
aggression we are concerned about is the type that manifests itself directly in violent or
antisocial behaviour. (we might stretch the point by saying that the doorstep sitter is
trespassing, in which case he or she might not be charged with a criminal offense). Likewise,
there are other situations in which passive-aggressive behaviour could lead to various types
of crime.
For example, refusing to file income tax because one is intensely dissatisfied with the
policies of the government.
In an effort to conceptualise the many varieties of human aggression. Buss (1971) tried to
classify them based on the apparent motivation of the aggressor, although his classification
does not refer specifically to motivations. You may easily find exceptions and overlapping
categories in the Buss Scheme, but that emphasizes how difficult it to compartmentalize
human aggressive behaviour. It also epitomizes, the many definitional dilemmas that hamper
social psychologists studying aggression as well as research on its various forms.
For example, researchers have learned that males employ more direct forms of
aggression, especially toward other males, whereas females tend to rely more on
indirect aggression, regardless of the gender of the target of their aggression.
Varieties of human aggression:
ACTIVE PASSIVE
PHYSICAL Direct: punching, hitting Direct: obstructing passage.
Indirect: practical joke, Indirect: refusing to perform
booby trap. a necessary task.
VERBAL Direct: insulting the victim. Direct: refusing to speak.
Indirect: malicious gossip. Indirect: refusing consent.
, Distinguish between hostile and instrumental aggression.
Two types of aggression first distinguished by Feschbach (1964): hostile and instrumental
aggression.
They are distinguished by their goals, or the rewards they offer the perpetrator.
Hostile (or expressive) aggression:
occurs in response to anger-inducing conditions, such as real or perceived insults,
physical attacks, or one’s own failures.
The aggressor’s goal is to make a victim suffer.
Most criminal homicides, rapes, and other violent crimes directed at harming the
victim are precipitated by hostile aggression.
The behaviour is characterised by the intense and disorganizing emotion of anger,
with anger defined as an arousal state elicited by certain stimuli, particularly those
evoking attack or frustration.
Instrumental aggression:
Begins with competition or the desire for some object or status possessed by another
person – jewellery, money, territory.
The perpetrator tries to obtain the desired object regardless of the cost.
Instrumental aggression is usually a factor in a robbery, burglary and various white-
collar crimes.
The perpetrators obvious goal in a robber is to obtain the item of value.
Usually there is no intent to harm anyone. However, if someone or something
interferes with the perpetrator’s objective, he or she may feel forced to harm the
victim or risk losing the desired goal. In that sense a robbery may lead to a murder,
but the aggression represented is still instrumental.
Instrumental aggression is also usually a feature of calculated murder committed by a
hired, impersonal killer.
Although psychologists make the distinction between hostile and instrumental aggression, the
law does not, insofar as responsibility for the crime is concerned. However, certain factors
associated with hostile aggression (e.g. if a crime is committed in a particularly heinous
fashion) can affect the criminal sentence. On the other hand, a contract killer’s instrumental
aggression may also bring a longer sentence if information about prior offenses comes to
light at sentencing.
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