Youth and Sexuality notes
Lecture 1: youth, sexuality and gender
Concepts and definitions
There is a distinction between sex and sex (seks & sekse). Sex/seks as short for sexuality is
often narrowly understood as: activities towards sexual arousal. Sex as in sekse refers to
biology; it is a set of biological characteristics defining human beings as male or female.
There is also gender, which is the sociological counterpart of biological sex. Gender refers to
the social-cultural and normative definitions of masculinity and femininity, and all the
processes and effects that are connected to those normative definitions. Often, the three
concepts are used interchangeably or incorrect.
Another important concept is sexuality. Sexuality is a central aspect of human being; it is the
central aspect throughout life, regardless of someone's age, that encompasses biological
sex, gender identity, gender roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, intimacy, reproduction and
pleasure. Besides, sexuality is experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires,
beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviours, practices, roles and relationships. While sexuality can
include all of these dimensions, not all of them are always experienced or expressed,
because society put heavy limitation on the experience and expression of sexuality; there are
sexual norms and structures. Also, there are a lot of domains that organize the way in which
sexuality is influenced: sexuality is influenced by the interaction of biological, psychological,
social, economic, political, cultural, legal, historical, religious and spiritual factors. This is the
definition of sexuality of the WHO.
The WHO also gives an definition of ‘sexual health’:
- A state of physical, emotional, mental and social well-being in relation to sexuality.
- It is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity. It is much more
positively formulated, as in sexual health requires a positive and respectful approach
to sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the possibility of having pleasurable
and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination and violence.
- For sexual health to be attained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must
be respected, protected and fulfilled.
- The outcomes mostly studied are much narrower, such as STIs/HIV, unplanned
pregnancies, sexual violence, sexual function and satisfaction. These are mostly
biological measures, while psychological and social measures are studied much less,
except for pleasure.
The importance of (studying) sexuality in young people
There are multiple reasons why sexuality is an important issue (to study):
1. Sexuality is associated with the highest happiness and the deepest sorrow.
2. Sexuality is entwined with gender roles and women’s societal and social position. For
example, norms about sexuality keep women in the kitchen or from school.
3. Sexuality is an important health issue, involving high costs both is somatic health care
as well as in mental health care. There is a multitude of problems and issues
associated with sexuality that come up in health care.
4. Sexuality is an important issue in education, policing and jurisdiction.
• Education: young people need to learn about sexuality.
• Policing & jurisdiction: some sexuality is criminal, such as rape.
5. Sexuality is interwoven with (other) important issues, such as:
• Population (density and/or growth) and ecological pressure that comes with
that.
• Human rights, sexual justice, civilization.
• Global health, burden of disease.
,why is sexuality important to adolescents and in adolescent development? Here we can
relate to Erikson's theory, which states that sexuality does function as a lever to the
development of identity and intimacy. First, sexuality and intimate relationships are important
in relation in the developmental task from becoming independent from the parent. This
independent task is often first played out in the area of sexuality and relationships. The same
is true for personal morality; a lot of moral issues relate to sexuality, intimacy and gender. So,
gender and sexuality are very important for the development of personal morality.
Furthermore, sexuality and intimate relationships are important for the development of the
capacity for meaningful intimate relationships. Other aspects for which sexuality and intimacy
are important are:
- It is crucial in finding the balance between autonomy and connectedness.
- Adolescent intimate relationships form a training ground for adulthood.
So, overall it could be concluded that sexuality functions as a crowbar/lever for the
development of identity, morality and intimacy
Short historical overview
The social regulation of sexuality refer to the legal legislations put on sexuality, for example
marriage, which relationships you can choose, whether you may use contraception, etc.
There are also social norms and related practices related to sexuality. This regulation is
sexuality is of all times and places, but the degree of moral restriction varies. Universally,
however, it affects women and non-heterosexual primarily. There is a variety of explanations
for this (particularly referring to women):
- Authorities and states want to protect the status quo of patriarchy, patriarchal power,
nations states’ safety and national identities.
- States want to prevent a state of chaos and anarchy by regulating sexuality.
- Evolutionary perspective: the concept of paternal uncertainty is crucial; woman
sexuality is being regulated because otherwise we won't be able to know who is the
father of their off-spring.
- Historical changes where there is a gradual shift towards social exclusion and
objectification of woman, dependency from woman on men, connected to the fact that
there is increasing male dominance.
- Pure misogyny
Within these general developments, there were a lot of historical and geographical variations.
Important for us in Europa was the clear tightening of rules during the 19th century, the
Victorian era. In the Victorian era, youth were seen as a-sexual. In the 19th century,
industrialization was taking place and there was a strong emphasis on masculinity and
differences of gender roles, which was tight to more strict rules. However, in the beginning of
the 20th century, there was a wave of democratization and informalization of gender equality,
attention to woman's rights. Therefore, codes regarding sexuality became less strict; there
was a much less strict atmosphere in the first half of the 20th century. This was for example
expressed in the rise of contraceptive care and sexological science. Other scientific
developments in the first half of the 20th century were:
- The rise of sexological science changed the perspective of sexuality from religious-
moral to medical-psychiatric
- German psychiatrists laid the foundation sexology as we know it now.
• Names associated with this period were: von Kraft-Ebing, Hirschfeld, Freud,
Reich (sexuality needs to be liberated for people to become free, it is a pre-
condition for total human freedom).
- WW2 ends first florescence abruptly since a lot of the people mentioned above
fled/were murdered.
- After WW2 the leading role was taken by Americans
, • Names associated with this period were: Kinsey (about sexuality of women
mainly), Money, Masters & Johnson (were no social scientists).
- Simone de Beauvoir La Deuxième Sexe (1949) → ‘On ne naît pas femme: on le
devient.
In this period of time, John Money came with the concept of gender. He defined gender as
‘all the non-genital and non-erotic activities that are defined by the conventions of society to
apply to males or to females’. So, this was really about the social-cultural counterparts of
biological sex. The concept was first used in the 50ies and 60ies in the USA, especially in
clinical work with transgenders. In the 70ies, gender was in particular widespread by feminist
scholars, who came used the concept as an antithesis to biological determinism.
Overall, we can see developments in the concept op gender which are associated with
scientific developments in general, from modern to postmodern perspectives:
- Gender as individual attribute: gender identity, gender investment, gender attitude
- Gender as social norm: gender roles, gender stereotype, the gender double standard,
- Gender as process, ‘doing gender’: social process characteristic of social interaction;
the continuous, daily enactment of gender roles and the sexual double standard.
In the 60ies and 70ies there were also things that happened regarding sexuality:
- Many sexual taboos disappeared → 2nd feminist wave, the contraceptive pill, sexual
revolution.
- The discovery of the human sexual response cycle: excitement, plateau, orgasm,
revolution (& later excitement was added).
- The emergence of social-constructionist perspectives, stressing the social
perspectives and aspects of sexuality.
- Homosexuality was deleted from DSM in 1974.
- There was a growing attention for sexual violence.
- Sexology stilly mainly focused on adults at that time.
Further developments regarding sexuality in the 80ies and 90ies were:
- There were big societal developments: increasing migration, VN conventions,
strengthening Human Rights perspectives (such as reproductive rights or gender
equality).
- In 1981, HIV was discovered.
- There was an increasing medicalization (such as Viagra in 1998) and its criticisms.
- The nature-nurture debate intensified.
- The adoption of the concept ‘sexual health’; SRHR (sexual reproductive health &
rights) was on the rise.
- Young people were hesitantly acknowledged as sexual beings.
Out of these developments, it could be concluded that there was increasing attention for
sexual right. Fundamentally, sexual rights are human rights in the area of sexuality, and they
comprise reproductive rights. Moreover, sexual rights refer to (1) freedoms from negative
things, and (2) freedoms to positive things. Negative things are discrimination & stigma,
coercion & violence. Positive things are a satisfying sex life; adequate information and
education; supplies, medicine, health care (such as abortion care); Self-determination in
relation to sexual partners, sexual orientation, relationships and living arrangements,
reproduction (timing and number of children).
Finally, the era 2.0 really experienced far-reaching globalization. Accessory developments
that come with this have an enormous impact on our relationships and social lives. Such
developments are a growing world population, technologization, mediatization and
commercialization of our social world. Developments in the area of sexuality are completely
intertwined with these developments. Moreover, in era 2.0 the larger part of research about
, sexuality addresses sexual risks of young people’s sexuality. These risks might have led to
the moral panics about young people and sexuality which are prominent now. These moral
panics have certain characteristics:
1. Scientific debates are always related to the rise of 'new' media.
2. Supposedly harmful sexualization; sexuality will harm young people.
3. Fear for downfall of childhood innocence
4. Need to protect the adolescent girl in particular.
These latter two aspects raise the question whether really are sexually innocent. Regarding
the fear of downfall childhood innocence: after Freud, the attention for children’s sexual
feelings relegated to the background; they didn’t talk about the sexual feelings of children
anymore. There was an increasing emphasis on the need to protect children. Because of
this, people were convinced that children were a-sexual, innocent and vulnerable. However,
there is a lot of evidence that this is not the case: children do have and experience sexual
interest, excitement and desire. These behaviours and feelings bring about uneasiness,
rejection and negative reactions from parent and others. Thus, they systematically frame
children as sexual innocent. This sexual innocence makes them vulnerable, because it
deprives the of necessary knowledge and skills. Groups that oppose sexuality education
state that it will stimulate sexual activity. Proponents of sexuality education, on the other
hand say that if we don't talk about sexuality, we won't give them the proper tools, knowledge
and skill they will need to become to develop their sexuality in proper and save ways.
Another reason why framing children as sexual innocents makes them vulnerable is because
the innocence is eroticized.
Ambivalence and controversy around female sexuality
The fact that there is a need to protect the adolescent girl has to do with the ambivalence
and controversy around female sexuality. The Madonna-whore dichotomy is used to explain
that there is a distinction between good and bad for woman on the basis of their sexual
behaviour. This is not the case when it comes to men, however.
In our societies, we are dealing with sexual double standards and heteronormativity:
➔ Sexual double standard: the norms that evaluate woman sexuality differs with those
for men.
➔ Heteronormativity: the whole system of norms and practices that shapes sexuality in
normative direction, which has the following fundamental aspects:
• Sexuality for males and females is seen as fundamentally different and
complementary to each other.
• Sexuality is seen as a male urge, a prerequisite for masculinity, whereas
female sexuality is seen as the counterparts: being modest, passive and
vulnerable.
• Woman are particular sexy but not sexual. With women, sex can have
damages for their reputation, which is not seen with men. This in particular
refers to the ambivalence around female sexuality.
Around this huge reality of women’s sexuality there are hefty debates, for example: sexual
violence (#metoo), sexualization-objectification (pornography, prostitution), victim-agent
binary. Furthermore, the are debates between radical versus liberal feminist perspectives;
there are feminist sex wars. There are differences between radical feminist and liberal
feminist on the issue of sexuality, especially heterosexuality. The clash between those two
strands are referred to as feminist sex wars. These originate from the 70ies when the anti-
porn vs. pro-sexuality feminists were opposing each other. After that, they have disagreed
about a lot: porn, solutions with regard to sexual violence, prostitution, whether to condone or
repose sexual play among children, whether to wear sexy clothes or not to schools, sexuality
education debates, etc.
