Summary

Social and Organizational Psychology Summary (Book and Lectures!)

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Course
Social and Organisational Psychology

Institution
Universiteit Leiden (UL)

Very compact (yet comprehensive in detail) notes on the material from the books, completed with additional information from the lectures of the course. Especially good for a complete overview before the exam!

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Uploaded on June 27, 2020
Number of pages 17
Written in 2018/2019
Type Summary

social psychology
organizational psychology
organisational psychology
social and organizational psychology
social and organisational psychology

Institution
Universiteit Leiden (UL)
Education
Psychologie
Course
Social and Organisational Psychology

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Main Topics Notes

1. Social Psychology (B&B) - Interaction → health, well-being, identity; social brain hypothesis (the larger the
group of the species, the larger the neocortex); Kurt Lewin (founder)
social psychology = Understanding how and why people behave, think and feel in social situations
- Scientiﬁc nature: follow set of values and methods: accuracy, replicability,
objectivity (no bias), skepticism, open-mindedness → more conclusive, clear results
- Social contexts/ experiences → self-identity → social behavior
- Factors of inﬂuence:
1. Actions and characteristics of others
2. Cognitive processes (attributions, social cognition)
3. Physical world (whether, smells…)
4. Biology (epigenetics, evolutionary psychol.: variation, inheritance, selection)
5. Culture
- Search for basic principles (consistent across time and cultures)
advances - integrating cognition and behavior in social situations
- role of emotions
- importance of social relationships, groups to well-being
- social neuroscience: relating neurological processes to social events
- the role of implicit (conconscious) processes
- taking social diversity/ cultures into account
research - to answer questions and increase knowledge
- Systematic observation: naturalistic observation, survey (representative, wording)
- Correlation: predictions (not causality, confounding var.), spurious correlation
- Experiments: systematic intervention, explaining, independent and dependent
variable, random assignment, control over conditions; external validity?
- mediating variable = intervening btw. independent and dependent variable (why)
- meta-analysis: explain large body of research; points gaps and biases in the
literature; moderators = aﬀects eﬀect of indep. var.
role of theories - explain why of a phenomenon
- theory → make prediction (hypothesis) → testing → accepted/ improved → testing
- never proven! = research is to gather evidence, not to prove!
dilemma of deception - ethical issues: disturbing w/ own reaction; upset w/ lies (→ negative view of science)
- passive deception = concealing the purpose of the study
- misleading info = assistants as participants; lies…
- Institutional Review Boards: informed consent, debrieﬁng, cost-beneﬁt analysis

2. Social Cognition (B&B) = how we think about the social world, attempts to understand complexities, why no
rational…: 1) avoid eﬀort; 2) eﬃcient info processors; 3) cognition aﬀect
Heuristics = simple rules for making complex decisions/ drawing inferences in fast way
- information overload = demand of cognitive system is greater than capacity
- when under conditions of uncertainty
representativeness - based on resemblance w/ prototype (base rate fallacy: does not make statistical
sense; conjunction fallacy: less probable of being in subcategory); judging
magnitude of eﬀect basing on magnitude of cause
availability - judging frequency/ probability based on ease / amount of retrieval (e.g. risk-taking
as gambling in economic threat);
- rely more on ease for <3 judgements, rely more on amount for diﬃcult ones
anchoring and adjustment - courts, starting price, donations, portion size eﬀect (how much you eat)
status quo - "what is, is good"; preference to old brand, people, tradition and longevity
Schemas = mental framework for guiding perceptions & actions
- info incongruent w/ schema is the focus of attention & encoding; retrieval better
what is consistent w/ schemas, but inconsistent info is also strong in memory

, - experience → priming of a schema → inﬂuences thought
- unpriming is possible when schema is somehow followed/ expressed
- schema persists even in face of inconsistency (perseverance eﬀect), self-fulling
- metaphor: ﬁgures of speech inﬂuence how we interpret the world
Automatic & Controlled - controlled processing = logical, eﬀortful, systematic, prefrontal cortex
Processing - automatic processing = intuitive, ~ eﬀortless, rapid, amygdala (limbic system), <3
- can occur together
- automatic processing aﬀects overt social behavior (priming a schema prepares
individual to interact with it);
- automatic processing is eﬃcient in retrieving info, better for taking complex
decisions (no limit for info, reﬂect our real preferences)
Errors of Social Cognition - tendencies; o en stems from errors of omission (info, feedback is crucial)
- Optimistic Bias = overlook risks; expect (golden) future → only feel bad temporarily
when not so bright outcome happens
- Negativity Bias = what is bad stands out more, more impact
- Overconﬁdence Bias = overconﬁdent on own beliefs/ judgements
- Planning Fallacy = underestimating time needed for a task; stronger when highly
motivated or in position of power (focus on completion rather than steps)
- Counterfactual Thinking = "what if.."; belief in free will (vs. determinism); aﬀects
mood reaction to event; the better you imagine how it would have been, the + regret
- Magical Thinking = compelling assumptions, not logical; law of similarity (if it
looks alike, share basic properties; e.g. insect cake); about terror management
(anxiety that we will die)
Aﬀect & Cognition - interplay
inﬂuence of aﬀect - feeling good, perceiving as good; attributions accordingly
Mood congruence eﬀect = current mood ﬁlters attention & encoding of info
Mood-dependent memory = easier to retrieve info compatible w/ current mood (cue)
Heuristics and Creativity: facilitated when w/ good mood (especially high in arousal)
inﬂuence of cognition - Two-factor theory of emotion: we infer what we feel basing on the outside context
- Activation of schema w/ aﬀect component inﬂuences our <3 response
Aﬀective Forecast = prediction of what we would feel about an event we did not live
(forecasting ≠ experiencing; ≠ processing of info)
- Regulation of aﬀective states: giving in to temptation when feeling bad is a
conscious decision, inﬂuenced by belief that moods can change; cheating/ unethical
behavior is self-satisfying
social neuroscience Two systems (logic & aﬀect) interact during problem solving

3. Social Perception (B&B) = gathering and analysing what we see in others (perceiving ≠ seeing)
Nonverbal Communication - relatively irrepressible
basic channels 1. Facial Expressions: anger, fear, happiness, sadness, disgust; ≠ combinations and
degrees; ~universal in use and recognition; those who intentionally express
emotions have higher accuracy in recognizing others'
2. Eye Contact: the more, the friendlier; staring = hostility, weird
3. Body Language (gesture, posture & movements): + movements = + arousal;
squirming = lying; hand gestures (≠ meanings across cultures)
4. Touching: depends on context, who touches, nature of touch…; handshake
nonverbal cues - Paralanguage = tone, volume, etc (how we speak)
- love gazing, holding hands
- facial feedback hypothesis = facial expressions trigger <3
recognizing deception - diﬃcult even for experts! better when in bad mood (increased attention to relevant
cues); we usually rely on invalid cues; but <3 still are transmitted (visual cliﬀ)
- valid cues: microexpressions; interchannel discrepancies; exaggerated facial
expressions; linguistic style (high pitch, slow answering)
Attribution - we want to understand why of others' behaviors

, theories Correspondent Theory (Jones & Davis) = we are most likely to conclude others' traits
based on their behavior when behavior is 1) freely chose; 2) yields noncommon
eﬀects (behavior caused by speciﬁc factor only); 3) is low in social desirability
Kelley's Covariation Theory (attribution theory) = to explain behavior, we apply:
1) consensus (= how much behavior matches what others would do);
2) consistency (of the behavior in individual across time);
3) distinctiveness (how much the individual reacts the same way to ≠ stimuli)
External causes = high/ internal causes = low
attributing others' behavior to external/internal/both causes
- Other dimensions: 1) factors are stable over time? 2) are factors controllable?
- Fate attributions: conviction of existence of God + belief of complex causality
- Action identiﬁcation: how much abstraction we put in our interpretation of
behaviors (reﬂecting more than just the action itself)
basic sources of error Correspondence Bias (fundamental attribution error) = attributing others' behavior
to internal causes and own behavior more to external causes
- (even when knowing about external causes!) → person has more perceptual salience
- we start by assuming internal, then correct for external (but not enough weight)
Actor- Observer Eﬀect = tendency to attribute others' to internal; own to external
- we are more aware of the situational causes of our actions, but not others'
Self-Serving Bias = own positive outcomes to internal; negative outcomes to external
- because we expect to succeed/ to protect our self-esteem
- stronger in Western cultures
application - interventions and insights
- Depression: self-defeating pattern (opposite of self-serving); no control over events
- Terrorism: justiﬁed by harm done to own people (USA to Muslims; external); more
justiﬁable than when another group does harm
Impression Formation = developing views of others
- Asch: we perceive traits of other in relation to one another (as in Gestalt)
- 1st impressions: slightly better than chance; quick (.04 sec depending on the trait)
- changing 1st impressions: w/ new info; rejecting current info; reinterpreting info
Impression Management - self-enhancement (↑ own appeal): physical or professional
- other-enhancement (make other feel good)/ self-handicapping (down-playing skills)
- when tactics are overdone, result is negative!

4. The Self (B&B)
Self-Presentation = Managing the self in diﬀerent social contexts
- Self-Other accuracy: we can be bad predictors of our own behavior because we
know our intentions (biases our perception); but we recognize our bias
tactics - self-promotion = convincing others we are good
- self-veriﬁcation = how we lead others to agree w/ our promotion; but also good to
be conceived how we are by close others
- ingratiation = presenting ourselves as respecting others (sometimes we overdo it)
- self-deprecation = imply we are not as good as the other
- there is a discrepancy in how we are and how we like seeing ourselves
Self-Knowledge = determining who we are
- Introspection (ﬁnding reasons for our actions): misleading when the behavior is
driven by unconscious <3; in aﬀective forecasting bias (predicting <3 in future)
- Take observer point of view (dispositional attributes rather than situational)
Personal vs. Social Identity Social identity theory = we describe ourselves ≠ depending on where we are on the
personal-versus-social identity continuum (which side is momentarily salient)
- intragroup comparison = w/ individuals of same group (experience as individual)
- intergroup comparison = w/ other groups, emphasize similarities w/ own group
- we maintain coherent self-view, recognizing we diﬀer according to ≠ situations
- Social Context inﬂuences self-view: time, place, which self-identity and group

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