PSYC 3230 Exam 2 | Complete Solutions (Verified)

PSYC 3230 Exam 2 | Complete Solutions (Verified) Psychophysiological Assessment: methods used to assess ___ structure, f___, and a____ of the nervous system methods used to assess brain structure, function, and activity of the nervous system Psychophysiological Assessment Domains - Electroencephalogram (EEG): _____ ____ activity - Heart rate and respiration: _____ activity - Electrodermal response and levels: _____ gland activity - Electromyography (EMG): _____ tension - Plethysmograph: _____ arousal - Electroencephalogram (EEG): brain wave activity - Heart rate and respiration: cardiorespiratory activity - Electrodermal response and levels: sweat gland activity - Electromyography (EMG): muscle tension - Plethysmograph: sexual arousal Diagnosing Psychological Disorders: Foundations in Classification - Assessment (____ approach) what is ____ to this person (_____ traits, ____ background, culture, other circumstances) - Assessment (idiographic approach) what is unique to this person (personality traits, family background, culture, other circumstances) Diagnosing Psychological Disorders: Foundations in Classification - Diagnosis (____ approach) applying what we ____ about a person to what we know about ____ more ____. Seeing if specific problems fit with a ____ class of problems - Diagnosis (nomothetic approach) applying what we know about a person to what we know about people more broadly. Seeing if specific problems fit with a general class of problems Diagnosing Psychological Disorders: Foundations in Classification Diagnostic Classification - ____ is central to all sciences - ____ categories based on shared attributes - Classification is central to all sciences - Develop categories based on shared attributes Taxonomy: classification in a ____ context classification in a scientific context Nosology: taxonomy in ____/____ context taxonomy in psychological/medical context Nomenclature: ____labels (e.g. panic disorder) nosological labels (e.g. panic disorder) International Classification of Diseases and Health Related Problems (ICD-11): published by the ___ ___ ____ published by the World Health Organization The classification system ICD-11 matters more than DSM-5 (T/F) true, ICD-11 matters more Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM): - published by the ___ ___ Association - controlled by ____ rather than psychologists - published by the American Psychiatric Association - controlled by psychiatrists rather than psychologists The Nature and Forms of Classification Systems - ___/___ decisions, each disorder is viewed as fundamentally ___ from others. Clear ___ cause. Individuals required to meet ___ requirements for classification - Useful in ___. Know diagnosis, know ____ - Viewed as ___ to complexity of psychological disorders - Yes/No decisions, each disorder is viewed as fundamentally different from others. Clear underlying cause. Individuals required to meet all requirements for classification - Useful in medicine. Know diagnosis, know treatment - Viewed as inappropriate to complexity of psychological disorders Dimensional approach: Classification Along Dimensions - Symptoms or disorders existing on a ___ (e.g. 0 to 100) - Patient might be mildly ___ (60) and ___ anxious (70). Create a profile to represent persons ___ - No agreement on ___ of dimensions or ___ dimensions required - Symptoms or disorders existing on a continuum (e.g. 0 to 100) - Patient might be mildly depressed (60) and moderately anxious (70). Create a profile to represent persons functioning - No agreement on number of dimensions or which dimensions required Prototypical approach: Both Classical and Dimensional - ___ (yes/no decisions) but individual does not have to fit ___ symptom. Rather, patient must meet some ___ number of prototypical criteria (e.g. 5 of 9 depression symptoms) - Creates ___ category heterogeneity - Presumes ____ within the yes or no group - Categorical (yes/no decisions) but individual does not have to fit every symptom. Rather, patient must meet some minimal number of prototypical criteria (e.g. 5 of 9 depression symptoms) - Creates within category heterogeneity - Presumes homogeneity within the yes or no group Purposes of the DSM System - Aid ____ - Evaluate ___ and ___ for treatment - ____ planning - Aid communication - Evaluate prognosis and need for treatment - Treatment planning DSM-I (1952) and DSM-II (1968) - Both relied on ___ theories and were ____ - Revised every ____-18 years DSM-I (1952) and DSM-II (1968) - Both relied on unproven theories and were unreliable - Revised every 16-18 years DMS-III (1980) through IV (2000) - Atheoretical, emphasizing ___ description not underlying ___ - Detailed ___ sets for disorders - Emphasis on ____ (inter-rater; test-retest) - Questions about ___ - Many decisions were not ___ (why have to have 4 panic attacks in a 4 ____ period; why have to be ____ for 2 weeks; why 5 of 9 depression symptoms) - Atheoretical, emphasizing clinical description not underlying etiology - Detailed criterion sets for disorders - Emphasis on reliability (inter-rater; test-retest) - Questions about validity - Many decisions were not empirical (why have to have 4 panic attacks in a 4 week period; why have to be depressed for 2 weeks; why 5 of 9 depression symptoms) DSM 2013 - Emphasis on understanding that many (most) symptoms aren't s___ to a s___ disorder but cut across m___ disorders (e.g. anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation) - Introduction of new d____ measures that exist across - Start to put s___ on how severe disorder is - Emphasis on understanding that many (most) symptoms aren't specific to a single disorder but cut across many disorders (e.g. anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation) - Introduction of new dimensional measures that exist across - Start to put specifiers on how severe disorder is Basic Components of Research - Starts with a ____ or "__ __" - ___ Design - Starts with a hypothesis or "educated guess" - Research Design Basic Components of Research - Starts with a ____ or "Educated Guess" - Not all hypotheses are ___ - Scientific hypotheses must be ____ - Can be ___or accepted (only trying to fully ____ hypotheses) - Starts with a Hypothesis or "Educated Guess" - Not all hypotheses are testable - Scientific hypotheses must be testable - Can be rejected or accepted (only trying to fully reject hypotheses) Basic Components of Research Research Design - A method to test ____ - Independent variable: the variable that ___ or ____behavior - Dependent variable: the behavior ____ by the independent variable - A method to test hypotheses - Independent variable: the variable that causes or influence behavior - Dependent variable: the behavior influenced by the independent variable Example: "exercise reduces depression" - Independent variable: ____ - Dependent variable: ___ of ____ - Independent variable: exercise - Dependent variable: ratings of depression ____ validity: did the independent variable produce the outcomes? Internal ____ validity: are the findings generalizable (e.g. to other settings, other locations, other types of samples, other problems) External Increases Internal Validity by Minimizing Confounds - Use of ___ groups (individuals not exposed to I.V. but like the experimental group in ___ ___way) - Use of ___ assignment procedures (individuals assigned to either experimental group or control group ____; avoid some ____ bias) - Use of ____ models (study related phenomenon in controlled conditions of _____ setting; alcohol) - Use of control groups (individuals not exposed to I.V. but like the experimental group in every other way) - Use of random assignment procedures (individuals assigned to either experimental group or control group randomly; avoid some systematic bias) - Use of analog models (study related phenomenon in controlled conditions of laboratory setting; alcohol) A cofound is ___that might make the results _____ A cofound is factors that might make the results uninterpretable Relations Between Internal and External Validity - Can be at ___ - Want to ___ any confounds that could impact results - BUT also want results to g___ to the "real world" - Researchers work hard to b____ these competing n___ - One way to do so, design m____ studies - Can be at odds - Want to control any confounds that could impact results - BUT also want results to generalize to the "real world" - Researchers work hard to balance these competing needs - One way to do so, design multiple studies Statistical Methods - Branch of _____ - Helps to protect against ___ in evaluating data - Branch of mathematics - Helps to protect against biases in evaluating data - Statistical significance: are the results due to ____? - Size of the ____ (e.g. correlation; difference in means) - Level of s___ - Sample s____ - Statistical significance: are the results due to chance? - Size of the effect (e.g. correlation; difference in means) - Level of significance - Sample size - Clinical significance: are the results clinically ____? - Subjective, up to ____ - Clinical significance: are the results clinically meaningful? - Subjective, up to individual Statistical significance does not imply ____ meaningfulness Clinical Balancing Statistical vs Clinical Significance - Evaluate ____ size (statistical measures that tell the ____of effect but focuses less on ____ size) - Evaluate effect size (statistical measures that tell the magnitude of effect but focuses less on sample size) Nature of the Case Study - Extensive ___ and details description of a client - Foundation of early developments in _____ Extensive observation and details description of a client Foundation of early developments in psychopathology Limitations of the Casey Study - Lacks scientific ___ and suitable ____ - Internal validity is typically ___ - Often entails numerous ___ - Findings ___ to the individual - More ___ from research - Lacks scientific rigor and suitable controls - Internal validity is typically weak - Often entails numerous cofounds - Findings unique to the individual - More inference from research The Nature of Correlation - ___ relation between two or more ___ - No ___ variable is manipulated - Statistical relation between two or more variables - No independent variable is manipulated Correlation and Causation - Problem of ____ (e.g. break ups and depression; substance use and impulsivity) - Correlation does not mean ____ (e.g. smoking and drinking) - Problem of Directionality (e.g. break ups and depression; substance use and impulsivity) - Correlation does not mean causation (e.g. smoking and drinking) Nature and Correlation and -Strength of Association - Range from -__ to +___ - Negative vs positive ____ - Range from -1 to +1 - Negative vs positive correlation Why use correlation studies? - Can't ___ assign individuals to groups and cant manipulate ___ (e.g. smoking; psychological disorders) - Can't randomly assign individuals to groups and cant manipulate IV (e.g. smoking; psychological disorders) Epidemiological Research - Study i___, p___, and course of disorders - looking for clues about the disorder - What factors are associated with ____of disorders (e.g. gender, SES, certain behaviors) - Can tell us where ____should be allocated, but it is a ____ at best - ___, hard to do - Goal, in part, is to ____clues as to the etiology of d____ - Study incidence, prevalence, and course of disorders - looking for clues about the disorder - What factors are associated with frequency of disorders (e.g. gender, SES, certain behaviors) - Can tell us where funding should be allocated, but it is a hint at best - Expensive, hard to do - Goal, in part, is to find clues as to the etiology of disorders _____: number of new cases during a specified time Incidence _____: number of people with the disorder at any given time Prevalence ____: more or less common in certain populations Distribution ____ ____: does everyone in the population have equal odds of being involved in research? random sampling Nature of Experimental Research - Manipulation of _____ variables (e.g. therapy or not; meds or not; levels of exercise) - R____ assignment - Attempt to establish ____ relations - Premium on ____ validity - Manipulation of independent variables (e.g. therapy or not; meds or not; levels of exercise) - Random assignment - Attempt to establish causal relations - Premium on internal validity Group Experimental Designs - Nature and purpose of control groups - Necessary to show that ____ is responsible for observed changes - Should be nearly _____ to treatment group - Necessary to show that IV is responsible for observed changes - Should be nearly identical to treatment group Placebo and double-blind controls - Hard to do placebo with -____, almost impossible - Placebo group (ensure that treatment effect isn't due to ____ that one will improve) - Easy to do with ____; less so with psychological treatment - Hard to do placebo with -psychotherapy, almost impossible - Placebo group (ensure that treatment effect isn't due to expectation that one will improve) - Easy to do with medications; less so with psychological treatment ___ ____: both researchers and participants are unaware of their group assignment double blind Comparative Treatment Designs - Type of ____ design - often next step after showing that treatment is better than ____ - Compare different forms of ___ in similar persons (e.g. psychotherapy vs medication vs combination) - Addresses treatment ___ (did change occur) - D____ studies (break study into parts and remove or focus only on certain aspects). Necessary to figure out the "____" components of the treatment - Type of group design - often next step after showing that treatment is better than placebo - Compare different forms of treatment in similar persons (e.g. psychotherapy vs medication vs combination) - Addresses treatment outcome (did change occur) - Dismantling studies (break study into parts and remove or focus only on certain aspects). Necessary to figure out the "active" components of the treatment Nature of Single Subject Design - S_____ study of individuals under a ____ of conditions - R____ study of single cases; m_____ of experimental conditions and time - ____ measurement (rather than just once before and once after treatment - like ____studies) - Premium on ____ validity - Systematic study of individuals under a variety of conditions - Rigorous study of single cases; manipulation of experimental conditions and time - Repeated measurement (rather than just once before and once after treatment - like larger studies) - Premium on internal validity Types of Single Subject Design - _____ designs: take away the ____; treatment reduces ____, disorder increases when ____ of treatment - Withdrawal designs: take away the medication; treatment reduces disorder, disorder increases when withdrawal of treatment Types of Single Subject Design - Assets: better sense if _____ caused changes - Liabilities: remove a treatment that might be ____; risk relapse; impossible to "_____" most psychological treatments (once learned, can't force patient to ____ them) - Assets: better sense if treatment caused changes - Liabilities: remove a treatment that might be helpful; risk relapse; impossible to "withdraw" most psychological treatments (once learned, can't force patient to unlearn them) Multiple baseline design - Don’t ___ and ___ treatment - Instead, start intervention at ___ times across settings (home vs school) or ____ (hitting; talking back; doing homework) - Don’t start and stop treatment - Instead, start intervention at different times across settings (home vs school) or behaviors (hitting; talking back; doing homework) Multiple baseline design - Assets: don’t have to ____ treatment - Liabilities: still making ____ on the basis of a ____ number of people - Assets: don’t have to withdrawal treatment - Liabilities: still making conclusions on the basis of a small number of people Genetic Research Strategies - Behavior genetics does not tell what ____ are at play - Behavioral g____ - ____ among genes, experience, and behavior - ____ (observable characteristics or behavior of an individual) vs ___ (genetic make up of an individual) - Down syndrome: phenotype (_____ disability); genotype (extra ____ chromosome) - Behavior genetics does not tell what genes are at play - Behavioral genetics - Interaction among genes, experience, and behavior - Phenotype (observable characteristics or behavior of an individual) vs genotype (genetic make up of an individual) - Down syndrome: phenotype (intellectual disability); genotype (extra 21st chromosome) Strategies Used in Genetic Research - Family studies - examine ___ patterns/___ traits in family members (e.g. schizophrenia; alcohol use) - Problems? Cannot distinguish between e____ and g____ factors - Family studies - examine behavioral patterns/emotional traits in family members (e.g. schizophrenia; alcohol use) - Problems? Cannot distinguish between environmental and genetic factors Strategies Used in Genetic Research - Adoptee studies: allows s___ of e____ from genetic contributions - Are children more like ___ parents or ___ parents? - Number of studies looking at ___ via adoption studies - In general, research suggests some ___ component - More so for ___ crime than violent crime - Adoptee studies: allows separation of environmental from genetic contributions - Are children more like adoptive parents or biological parents? - Number of studies looking at crime via adoption studies - In general, research suggests some heritable component - More so for property crime than violent crime Strategies Used in Genetic Research - ___ studies: evaluate psychopathology in ___ vs ___ twins - Identical twins shares ___% of genes, fraternal twins share on average about ____% of genes - Risk of developing schizophrenia (m____ twins: 48% D_____ twins: 17%) - Results require that the "____ ___" assumption is correct. That is, results assume that ____ twins are NOT treated any more similarly than ____ twins. Most results bear this out - both types of twins treated in an ____ similar manner - Twin studies: evaluate psychopathology in fraternal vs identical twins - Identical twins shares 100% of genes, fraternal twins share on average about 50% of genes - Risk of developing schizophrenia (Monozygotic twins: 48% Dizygotic twins: 17%) - Results require that the "equal environment" assumption is correct. That is, results assume that MZ twins are NOT treated any more similarly than DZ twins. Most results bear this out - both types of twins treated in an equally similar manner Strategies Used in Genetic Research - ____wide association studies - locate site of ____ genes - Genetic wide association studies - locate site of related genes Strategies Used in Genetic Research Time Based Research Strategies - Cross sectional designs: take a ___ ___ of the population across different ____ groups and compare on a certain characteristic - Example: s____ use - Participants in each age group - c____ - m____ of the cohort - same age, same historical time - exposed to s____ experiences - Cohort effect: cofounding effect of age and experience. Major ____of cross sectional designs - Tell us little about ____ problems develop. Can tell us that t___ variables are related but not c____ information - Cross sectional designs: take a cross section of the population across different age groups and compare on a certain characteristic - Example: substance use - Participants in each age group - cohorts - Member of the cohort - same age, same historical time - exposed to similar experiences - Cohort effect: cofounding effect of age and experience. Major limitation of cross sectional designs - Tell us little about how problems develop. Can tell us that two variables are related but not causal information Strategies Used in Genetic Research - Longitudinal designs: follow ___ group over ___ and assess changes in ___ - No ___ effect problem - Gets us closer to understanding ___(order of relationship; depression leads to fewer friends vs fewer friends leads to depression) - Longitudinal designs: follow one group over time and assess changes in individuals - No cohort effect problem Gets us closer to understanding causality (order of relationship; depression leads to fewer friends vs fewer friends leads to depression) Problems with Longitudinal Designs - Takes a ___time to do - E___ - Must worry about participant a____ - Study topic may no longer be ___ by the time study ___ - Cross-generational effect: may not be ___ to ____ study effects to other groups whose experiences are quite ____ - Takes a long time to do - Expensive - Must worry about participant attrition - Study topic may no longer be relevant by the time study complete - Cross-generational effect: may not be possible to generalize study effects to other groups whose experiences are quite different Studying Behavior Across Cultures Values of Cross Cultural Research - Studying a____ behavior from various cultures can be i___: tells us about ___ and treatment of disorders from different p____ - Overcoming e____ research - Predictors of s____ use in Caucasian adolescents, not necessarily the same for ___ American adolescents - Studying abnormal behavior from various cultures can be information: tells us about origins and treatment of disorders from different perspectives - Overcoming ethnocentric research - Predictors of substance use in Caucasian adolescents, not necessarily the same for African American adolescents Issues in Cross Cultural Research - Clarify how p____ manifests in different e____ groups (same t____ may look or feel very different across cultures) - Nonwestern cultures tend to emphasize s___ aspects of depression (e.g. changes in appetite, sleep, or energy) - Different t____ for abnormal behavior - Treatment exists within c____ context - Clarify how psychopathology manifests in different ethnic groups (same terminology may look or feel very different across cultures) - Nonwestern cultures tend to emphasize somatic aspects of depression (e.g. changes in appetite, sleep, or energy) - Different thresholds for abnormal behavior - Treatment exists within cultural context The Nature of Programmatic Research Components of a Research Program - No one study will d____ answer the question - Studies proceed asking s___ d____ questions, using slightly different p____ - Conducted in s___, often involving r_____ - Scientific knowledge typically builds i_____ - No one study will definitively answer the question - Studies proceed asking slightly different questions, using slightly different procedures - Conducted in stages, often involving replication - Scientific knowledge typically builds incrementally Anxiety - F____ oriented mood state - Characterized by m___ n___ affect - S____ symptoms of tension - Apprehension about future d___ or m____ - Future oriented mood state - Characterized by marked negative affect - Somatic symptoms of tension - Apprehension about future danger or misfortune Fear - P____-oriented mood state - Immediate f____ or f____ response to danger or threat - Strong a____e/e____ tendencies - Abrupt a___ of the s____ nervous system - Present-oriented mood state - Immediate fight or flight response to danger or threat - Strong avoidance/escapist tendencies - Abrupt activation of the sympathetic nervous system Anxiety and fear are ____ emotional states Normal Characteristics of Anxiety Disorders - Psychological disorders: p____ and p____ symptoms of anxiety and fear - Involve excessive a____ and e____ tendencies - Causes clinically significant d____ and i____ - Psychological disorders: pervasive and persistent symptoms of anxiety and fear - Involve excessive avoidance and escapist tendencies - Causes clinically significant distress and impairment Biological Contributions to Anxiety and Panic - Diathesis: S____ - Inherit v____ for anxiety and panic, not d____ - Stress and life circumstances activate v____ - Diathesis: Stress - Inherit vulnerabilities for anxiety and panic, not disorders - Stress and life circumstances activate vulnerability Biological causes and inherent vulnerabilities - Anxiety and brain c____ - GABA, noradrenergic, serotonergic systems. Lower l____/s____ (?...GABA, serotonin) - more a____; higher levels (noradrenaline) - more a____ - Anxiety and brain circuits - GABA, noradrenergic, serotonergic systems. Lower levels/sensitivity (?...GABA, serotonin) - more anxiety; higher levels (noradrenaline) - more anxiety Biological Contributions to Anxiety and Panic Biological causes and inherent vulnerabilities - Behavioral Inhibition System: activated by s____ from brain stem of u____ events, such as major changes in bodily functioning, that might signal d____ - More oriented towards a____ - When BIS activated, we tend to "_____", experience a____, and anxiously evaluate e____ for signs of danger - P____ species - BIS thought to be d___ from circuit involved with P____ - Behavioral Inhibition System: activated by signs from brain stem of unexpected events, such as major changes in bodily functioning, that might signal danger - More oriented towards anxiety - When BIS activated, we tend to "freeze", experience anxiety, and anxiously evaluate environment for signs of danger - Prey species - BIS thought to be distinct from circuit involved with Panic Biological Contributions to Anxiety and Panic Biological causes and inherent vulnerabilities - Fight or Flight System: when system a____, it produces an immediate "a___ and e___" response - More oriented towards f___ - E____ factors may change the sensitivity of brain circuits causing one to be more or less apt to d___ an a_____ disorder - Fight or Flight System: when system aroused, it produces an immediate "alarm and escape" response - More oriented towards fear - Environmental factors may change the sensitivity of brain circuits causing one to be more or less apt to develop an anxiety disorder Psychological Contributions to Anxiety and Panic Freud - A____ is a psychological reaction to d____ (but tied to early i____/c____ fears) - Anxiety is a psychological reaction to danger (but tied to early infant/childhood fears) Psychological Contributions to Anxiety and Panic Behaviorist views - Anxiety and fear result from c___ and o____ conditioning and modeling (v____ l_____) - Anxiety and fear result from classical and operant conditioning and modeling (vicarious learning) Psychological Contributions to Anxiety and Panic Psychological views - Early experiences with u____ and/or u____