BIOL 5600 Exam 1 Material
1. Anatomy
a. Study of body structures
b. They are constructed in a certain way because SELECTION has shaped them that
way to be able to fulfill a certain function
i. Structure is not random
ii. Structure = function
iii. Structure is there to serve a specific function
1. Has been there 10s of millions of years to ensure this is the most
efficient structure
a. Sometimes not always the most efficient even after
evolution
2. Physiology
a. Study of body FUNCTION
3. Basic Life Processes (5-6 most important ones)
a. Respiration- needed for metabolism; need respiration so that you have oxygen to
make ATP in cellular respiration (aerobic respiration)
i. Gives you energy to fulfill metabolic processes
b. Growth/differentiation- theoretically getting bigger; differentiation and
specialization of cells
i. Differentiation: only selected genes become active, transforming the cell
into a specialized unit
c. Reproduction- ability to reproduce
i. Sexual reproduction for us
ii. Cloning in others (like hydra)
d. Waste Production
i. What is the point of waste? Excrete the unnecessary products from the
body to maintain homeostasis
e. Response to Stimuli- allows you to maintain homeostasis
f. Movement- movement of body parts that you can see eternally but also internally
we have muscles and circulation of solutes and substances throughout the body
g. FROM PPT
i. Metabolism
1. Sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body
2. Breaking down of large complex molecules- catabolism
3. And building the structural and functional components- anabolism
4. Providing energy to do these things- O2 is necessary for the making
of chemical energy
ii. Responsiveness- detect and generate a response to changes in internal and
external environment (nerve/endocrine)
, iii. Movement- motion of whole body of the various sub levels:
1. Organs- smooth muscle, peristalsis,
2. Single cells- movement of solutes, molecules and ions
a. Molecules and ions inside and outside cells
i. Including the exchange of ions, molecules, CO2, O2
1. Passive transport, active transport, diffusion,
osmosis, capillary pressure
iv. Growth- increase in body size
1. Not just whole body but organs which is linked with →
v. Differentiation- specialization of cells
vi. Reproduction
h. THESE ARE WHAT WE WILL BE TALKING ABOUT FOR THE ENTIRE
SEMESTER
4. All of these processes are tightly regulated
a. Think homeostasis
b. They work fast, especially in endotherms with very stable set points
c. Have a fairly stable mean set point around which there are fluctuations within,
again, fairly stable set limits
i. Thnk temperature
ii. Can change during exercise
d. The whole purpose of physiology is to take action to keep body process
functioning to maintain this set point
5. Claude Bernard (1813-1878)
a. Father of Physiology
b. “Cells flourish because they live in relative constancy of the milieu interieur”
i. Physiology is the process of trying to maintain a constant internal
environments despite continual changes in the external environment
ii. Basically he was saying we have constant internal environments
iii. Cells dont like if they go out of balance
6. Walter Cannon (1871-1945)
a. Coined the term HOMEOSTASIS
i. Condition of eq in the body’s internal environment produced by
CEASELESS interplay of all of the body’s regulatory function
b. Ex: Blood sugar
i. You eat something, blood sugar goes up, you run around, blood sugar goes
down
ii. Where does blood sugar go? Into cells, broken down to produce energy
iii. Normal range: 70-110 mg/100 mL (dL)
iv. Set point in the middle- where the body wants to keep the blood sugar
around!
, v. Insulin secretion causes blood glucose to be taken up by cells!!
1. Takes glucose out of plasma so blood sugar goes back down
2. If blood sugar is too high
vi. Glucagon secretin causes glucose to be released from cells
1. If blood sugar falls too low
vii. Insulin and Glucagon: simple (negative) feedback systems
viii. HOMEOSTASIS IS A DYNAMIC CONDITION
ix. Nothing is ever at EQ for real!!
1. REMEMBER, EQ AND YOU ARE DEAD
7. Control of Homeostasis
a. Disruption from internal and external stimuli
i. From external: too hot, too cold, not enough oxygen, stressors
ii. Form internal: blood glucose too low; endocrine signals
b. Body copes by using many regulatory systems to bring it back toward the set
point!
i. MOSTLY THIS RESPONSIVENESS IS MAINTAINED BY THE
NERVOUS (RAPID) AND ENDOCRINE (SLOW) SYSTEMS
c. Allostasis: more modern idea; concentrates on change
i. What are the things going on to maintain equilibrium (which never really
occurs)?
d. Homeostasis is only good for a particular state
i. Ex: pregnant versus nonpregnant
ii. Ex: seasonally there are different set points
iii. Ex: night and day
iv. Ex: child and adult
v. Ex: fever state versus non-fever state
1. Allostasis has changed the set point!!!
8. Feedback Systems
a. A cycle of events in which the status of the body condition is continually
i. Monitored
ii. Evaluated
iii. Changed
iv. Re-mnitored
v. Re-evaluated
b. A loop!
c. 3 basic components!
i. Receptor (INPUT)- monitors changes and sends data to the control center
ii. Control Center (INTEGRATOR)- sets the range of accepted values,
evaluates, data; generates output commands to an effector
1. Commonly the brain
, iii. Effector (OUTPUT)- body structures that responds to the command that
changes the parameter that needs to be controlled
1. Nearly every organ or tissue can act as an effector
iv. Ex: temperature
1. Thermoreceptor- too hot; sends message to control center brain;
brain sends message to muscles, move your hand
d. Cycle forms a FEEDBACK LOOP
9. Feedback- response within system that influences the continued activity or productivity
of that system; in essence, it is the control of a biological reaction by the end products of
that reaction
a. Negative feedback
i. Most common type of feedback loop
ii. Reverses change
iii. Example
1. Heart beats faster or stronger (more volume per beat) as you run up
the stairs → increases BP → BP forces on walls of arteries →
Baroreceptors sense the pressure in the walls of arteries →
Baroreceptor input message is sent to the brain → brain receives it
and sends impulses to the heart to slow down or beat with less
force → drop in BP
b. Positive feedback- not as common; lots of times bad for you; exception with a few
processes (like childbirth)
i. Leads to more and more until and end result and then crashes
ii. Ex: climate change: CO2 causes climate warmth, increases snow melting,
snow can no longer reflect and cool earth, increases climate change
iii. Ex: Labor
1. First contraction of labor → stretch receptors in the cervix →
sends message to brain → brain releases oxytocin → makes the
uterus contract more and more with more sustained force →
continues until birth
2. Breastfeeding: also relates to oxytocin; suckling, release oxytocin,
increase milk letdown; mostly used for bonding though not for
expulsion of milk
3. About the only one in the human body because it usually could
lead to problems (think hemorrhaging)
10.Homeostatic imbalance
a. Arises from addictions and such
b. When moderate, we consider it a disorder
c. A “disease”- more specific term with recognizable set of signs/symptoms
d. Symptoms- subjective
1. Anatomy
a. Study of body structures
b. They are constructed in a certain way because SELECTION has shaped them that
way to be able to fulfill a certain function
i. Structure is not random
ii. Structure = function
iii. Structure is there to serve a specific function
1. Has been there 10s of millions of years to ensure this is the most
efficient structure
a. Sometimes not always the most efficient even after
evolution
2. Physiology
a. Study of body FUNCTION
3. Basic Life Processes (5-6 most important ones)
a. Respiration- needed for metabolism; need respiration so that you have oxygen to
make ATP in cellular respiration (aerobic respiration)
i. Gives you energy to fulfill metabolic processes
b. Growth/differentiation- theoretically getting bigger; differentiation and
specialization of cells
i. Differentiation: only selected genes become active, transforming the cell
into a specialized unit
c. Reproduction- ability to reproduce
i. Sexual reproduction for us
ii. Cloning in others (like hydra)
d. Waste Production
i. What is the point of waste? Excrete the unnecessary products from the
body to maintain homeostasis
e. Response to Stimuli- allows you to maintain homeostasis
f. Movement- movement of body parts that you can see eternally but also internally
we have muscles and circulation of solutes and substances throughout the body
g. FROM PPT
i. Metabolism
1. Sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body
2. Breaking down of large complex molecules- catabolism
3. And building the structural and functional components- anabolism
4. Providing energy to do these things- O2 is necessary for the making
of chemical energy
ii. Responsiveness- detect and generate a response to changes in internal and
external environment (nerve/endocrine)
, iii. Movement- motion of whole body of the various sub levels:
1. Organs- smooth muscle, peristalsis,
2. Single cells- movement of solutes, molecules and ions
a. Molecules and ions inside and outside cells
i. Including the exchange of ions, molecules, CO2, O2
1. Passive transport, active transport, diffusion,
osmosis, capillary pressure
iv. Growth- increase in body size
1. Not just whole body but organs which is linked with →
v. Differentiation- specialization of cells
vi. Reproduction
h. THESE ARE WHAT WE WILL BE TALKING ABOUT FOR THE ENTIRE
SEMESTER
4. All of these processes are tightly regulated
a. Think homeostasis
b. They work fast, especially in endotherms with very stable set points
c. Have a fairly stable mean set point around which there are fluctuations within,
again, fairly stable set limits
i. Thnk temperature
ii. Can change during exercise
d. The whole purpose of physiology is to take action to keep body process
functioning to maintain this set point
5. Claude Bernard (1813-1878)
a. Father of Physiology
b. “Cells flourish because they live in relative constancy of the milieu interieur”
i. Physiology is the process of trying to maintain a constant internal
environments despite continual changes in the external environment
ii. Basically he was saying we have constant internal environments
iii. Cells dont like if they go out of balance
6. Walter Cannon (1871-1945)
a. Coined the term HOMEOSTASIS
i. Condition of eq in the body’s internal environment produced by
CEASELESS interplay of all of the body’s regulatory function
b. Ex: Blood sugar
i. You eat something, blood sugar goes up, you run around, blood sugar goes
down
ii. Where does blood sugar go? Into cells, broken down to produce energy
iii. Normal range: 70-110 mg/100 mL (dL)
iv. Set point in the middle- where the body wants to keep the blood sugar
around!
, v. Insulin secretion causes blood glucose to be taken up by cells!!
1. Takes glucose out of plasma so blood sugar goes back down
2. If blood sugar is too high
vi. Glucagon secretin causes glucose to be released from cells
1. If blood sugar falls too low
vii. Insulin and Glucagon: simple (negative) feedback systems
viii. HOMEOSTASIS IS A DYNAMIC CONDITION
ix. Nothing is ever at EQ for real!!
1. REMEMBER, EQ AND YOU ARE DEAD
7. Control of Homeostasis
a. Disruption from internal and external stimuli
i. From external: too hot, too cold, not enough oxygen, stressors
ii. Form internal: blood glucose too low; endocrine signals
b. Body copes by using many regulatory systems to bring it back toward the set
point!
i. MOSTLY THIS RESPONSIVENESS IS MAINTAINED BY THE
NERVOUS (RAPID) AND ENDOCRINE (SLOW) SYSTEMS
c. Allostasis: more modern idea; concentrates on change
i. What are the things going on to maintain equilibrium (which never really
occurs)?
d. Homeostasis is only good for a particular state
i. Ex: pregnant versus nonpregnant
ii. Ex: seasonally there are different set points
iii. Ex: night and day
iv. Ex: child and adult
v. Ex: fever state versus non-fever state
1. Allostasis has changed the set point!!!
8. Feedback Systems
a. A cycle of events in which the status of the body condition is continually
i. Monitored
ii. Evaluated
iii. Changed
iv. Re-mnitored
v. Re-evaluated
b. A loop!
c. 3 basic components!
i. Receptor (INPUT)- monitors changes and sends data to the control center
ii. Control Center (INTEGRATOR)- sets the range of accepted values,
evaluates, data; generates output commands to an effector
1. Commonly the brain
, iii. Effector (OUTPUT)- body structures that responds to the command that
changes the parameter that needs to be controlled
1. Nearly every organ or tissue can act as an effector
iv. Ex: temperature
1. Thermoreceptor- too hot; sends message to control center brain;
brain sends message to muscles, move your hand
d. Cycle forms a FEEDBACK LOOP
9. Feedback- response within system that influences the continued activity or productivity
of that system; in essence, it is the control of a biological reaction by the end products of
that reaction
a. Negative feedback
i. Most common type of feedback loop
ii. Reverses change
iii. Example
1. Heart beats faster or stronger (more volume per beat) as you run up
the stairs → increases BP → BP forces on walls of arteries →
Baroreceptors sense the pressure in the walls of arteries →
Baroreceptor input message is sent to the brain → brain receives it
and sends impulses to the heart to slow down or beat with less
force → drop in BP
b. Positive feedback- not as common; lots of times bad for you; exception with a few
processes (like childbirth)
i. Leads to more and more until and end result and then crashes
ii. Ex: climate change: CO2 causes climate warmth, increases snow melting,
snow can no longer reflect and cool earth, increases climate change
iii. Ex: Labor
1. First contraction of labor → stretch receptors in the cervix →
sends message to brain → brain releases oxytocin → makes the
uterus contract more and more with more sustained force →
continues until birth
2. Breastfeeding: also relates to oxytocin; suckling, release oxytocin,
increase milk letdown; mostly used for bonding though not for
expulsion of milk
3. About the only one in the human body because it usually could
lead to problems (think hemorrhaging)
10.Homeostatic imbalance
a. Arises from addictions and such
b. When moderate, we consider it a disorder
c. A “disease”- more specific term with recognizable set of signs/symptoms
d. Symptoms- subjective
