A great detailed summary of the theory (so almost no formulas) of the book 'Research Methods. A modular Approach (Third Edition). by S.L. Jackson. It contains everything you need to know for the exam and exists of the chapters (modules) 1,2,5,6,7,8,9,10,12,14,15,16,17,18,19 and 20.
There are many ways to gain knowledge, and some are better than others. There will be discussed
right and wrong sources to gain knowledge.
Superstition and intuition
Gaining knowledge via superstition means acquiring knowledge based on subjective feelings, belief in
chance, or belief in magical events. When we gain knowledge via intuition, we have knowledge of
something without being consciously aware of where it came from. Sometimes we intuit knowledge
based not on a “gut feeling” but on events we have observed. The problem is that the events may be
misinterpreted and not representative of all events in that category. Illusory correlation is the
perception of a relationship that does not exist.
Authority
When we accept what a respected or famous person tells us, we are gaining knowledge via authority.
Most people tend to accept information imparted by those they view as authority figures. Such
knowledge may not be a problem if the figure truly is an authority. However, problems may arise
when the perceived authority figure really is not knowledgeable in the subject area. Accepting the
word of an authority figure may be a reliable and valid means of gaining knowledge but only if the
individual is truly an authority on the subject. Thus we need to question “authoritative” sources of
knowledge and develop an attitude of skepticism so that we do not blindly accept whatever we hear.
Tenacity
Gaining knowledge via tenacity involves hearing a piece of information so often that you begin to
believe it is true and then, despite evidence to the contrary, cling stubbornly to that belief. This is
used in politics and advertisements. The problem with gaining knowledge through tenacity is that we
do not know whether the claims are true.
Rationalism
Gaining knowledge via rationalism involves logical reasoning. With this approach, ideas are precisely
stated and logical rules are applied to arrive at a reasoned and sound conclusion. Rational ideas are
often presented in the form of a syllogism. Syllogism reflects the problem with gaining knowledge by
logic. Although the syllogism is logically sound, the content of both premises is not necessarily true. If
the content of either premise is false, then the conclusion is logically valid but empirically false, and it
is therefore of no use to a scientist.
Empiricism
Knowledge via empiricism involves gaining knowledge through objective observation and the
experiences of the senses. Empiricism alone, however, is not enough. It leads to a collection of facts.
Thus, as scientists, if we rely solely on empiricism, we have nothing more than a long list of
observations or facts. We need to use rationalism together with empiricism to make sure that our
observations are logical.
Science
1
,Gaining knowledge via science then involves a merger of rationalism and empiricism. Scientists
collect data and test hypotheses with these data. A hypothesis is a prediction regarding the outcome
of a study. By merging rationalism and empiricism, we have the advantage of using a logical
argument based on observation.
In science, the goal of testing hypotheses is to arrive at or to test a theory, which is an organized
system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain phenomena and how they are related.
Theories help us organize and explain the data gathered in research studies.
The scientific (critical thinking) approach and psychology
The scientific method requires developing an attitude of skepticism. A skeptic is a person who
questions the validity, authenticity, or truth of something purportedly factual. Being a skeptic and
using scientific method involve applying three important criteria that help define science: systematic
empiricism, public verification, and empirically solvable problems.
Systematic empiricism
As we have seen, empiricism is the practice of relying on observation to draw conclusions. Empiricism
alone is not enough; it must be systematic empiricism. The observation must be made systematically
to test a hypothesis and to develop or refute a theory. By using systematic empiricism, researchers
can draw more reliable and valid conclusions than they can from observation alone.
Public verification
Scientific research is research that is open to public verification. The research is presented to the
public in such a way that it can be observed, replicated, criticized, and tested for veracity by others.
Empirically solvable problems
Science always investigates empirically solvable problems – questions that are potentially answerable
by means of currently available research techniques. When solvable problems are studied, they are
always open to the principle of falsifiability, meaning that a scientific theory must be stated in such a
way that it is possible to refute or disconfirm it. A theory is not scientific if it is irrefutable.
Pseudoscience, a claim that appears to be scientific but that actually violates the criteria of science, is
usually irrefutable and is also often confused with science.
Basic and applied science
Some psychologists conduct research because they enjoy seeking knowledge and answering
questions. This work is referred to as basic research – the study of psychological issues to seek
knowledge for its own sake. Its intent is not immediate application but the gaining of knowledge. A
second type of research is applied research, which involves the study of psychological issues that
have practical significance and potential solutions. Scientists who conduct applied research are
interested in finding an answer to a question because the answer can be immediately applied.
Goals of science
Description
Description begins with careful observation. Psychologists might describe patterns of behavior,
thought, or emotions in humans or in other animals. Description allows us to learn about behavior as
well as when it occurs.
Prediction
2
,Prediction allows us to identify the factors that indicate when an event or events will occur.
Explanation
Finally, explanation allows us to identify the causes that determine when and why a behavior occurs.
To explain a behavior, we need to demonstrate that we can manipulate the factors needed to
produce or eliminate it. As scientists, we test possibilities to identify the best explanation of why a
behavior occurs. When we try to identify the best explanation, we must systematically eliminate any
alternative explanations, and to do that, we must impose control over the research.
Module 2: an introduction to research methods
Descriptive methods
Psychologists use three types of descriptive methods. First, in the observational method the
researcher simply observes human or other animal behavior. Psychologists approach observation in
two ways. Naturalistic observation involves observing how humans or other animals behave in their
natural habitats. Laboratory observation entails observing behavior in a contrived and controlled
situation, usually the laboratory. Observation involves description at its most basic level. One
advantage of the observational method, as well as of other descriptive methods, is the flexibility to
change what we are studying. A disadvantage of descriptive methods is that we have little control. A
second descriptive method is the case study method. A case study is an in-depth study of one or
more individuals. This method is descriptive in nature because it involves simply describing the
individual(s) being studied. The third method that relies on description is the survey method, which
involves questioning individuals on a topic or topics and then describing their responses. One
advantage of the survey method over the other descriptive methods is that it allows researchers to
study larger groups of individuals more easily. This method, however has disadvantages. One
concern is whether the group of people who participate in the study (the sample) is representative of
all the people about whom the study is meant to generalize (the population). This concern can
usually be overcome through random sampling. A random sample is achieved when through random
selection each member of the population is equally likely to be chosen as part of the sample.
Predictive (relational) methods
Two methods allow researchers not only to describe behaviors but also to predict from one variable
to another. The first, the correlational method, assesses the degree of relationship between two
measured variables. If two variables are correlated with each other, then we can predict from one
variable to the other with a certain degree of accuracy. One problem with correlational research is
that it is often misinterpreted. Frequently people assume that because two variables are correlated
there must be some sort of causal relationship between them. This is not so. Correlation does not
imply causation. A positive relationship is as one variable increases, we observe increase in the
second. Some correlations indicate a negative relationship: as one variable increases, the other
systematically decreases. A second method, the quasi-experimental method, also allows us to
describe and predict by permitting us to compare naturally occurring groups of individuals. The type
of variable used in quasi-experimental research and described above is often referred to as a subject
or participant variable, a characteristic of the subjects that cannot be changed. When using
predictive methods, we do not systematically manipulate the variables of interest; we only measure
them. Although we may observe a relationship between variables. We cannot conclude that it is a
causal relationship. Why not? There could be alterative explanations for this relationship. An
alternative explanation is the idea that it is possible some other uncontrolled, extraneous variable
may be responsible for the observed relationship.
3
, Explanatory method
When using the experimental method, researchers pay a great deal of attention to eliminating the
possibility of alternative explanations by using the proper controls. As a result, the experimental
method allows researchers not only to describe and predict but also to determine whether there is
cause-and-effect relationship between the variables of interest. Many preconditions must be met for
a study to be experimental in nature. The basic premise of experimentation is that the researcher
controls as much as possible to determine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between
the variables being studied. When using the experimental method, the researcher manipulates at
least one variable (know as the independent variable) and measures at least one variable (the
dependent variable). For comparative purposes the independent variable has to have at least two
groups, or conditions, typically referred to as the control group and the experimental group. The
control group serves as the baseline or “standard” condition. The experimental group receives the
treatment. What else should researchers control to help eliminate alternative explanations? They
need to control the type of subjects in each of the treatment conditions. They should begin by
drawing a random sample of subjects from the population. Once they have the sample, they have to
decide who serves in the control group and who in the experimental group. To gain as much control
as possible and to eliminate as many alternative explanations as possible, they should use random
assignment, that is, assigning subjects to conditions in such a way that each has the same probability
as any other subject of being placed in any condition. How does random assignment help gain control
and eliminate alternative explanations? Random assignment should minimize or eliminate
differences between groups.
Doing science
Although the experimental method can establish a case-and-effect relationship, most researchers do
not wholeheartedly accept a conclusion based on only one study. Why not? Any number of problems
can occur in a study. Another reason for caution in interpreting experimental results is that study
may be limited by the technical equipment available at the time. Finally, we cannot completely rely
on the findings of one study because a single study cannot tell us everything about a theory. Science
is not static; the theories generated through science change. When testing a theory scientifically we
may obtain contradictory results. The contradictions may lead to new and very valuable information
that subsequently leads to a theoretical change. Based on the consensus of the research, theories
evolve and change over time. Support of an idea or theory by data from one study does not mean we
just accept the theory as it currently stands and never do any more research on the topic.
Proof and disproof
When scientists test theories, they do not try to prove them true. Theories can be supported by the
data collected, but obtaining support does not mean a theory is true in all instances. Proof of a
theory is logically impossible. How then do we test a hypothesis? We test a hypothesis by attempting
to falsify or disconfirm it. If it cannot be falsified, then we say we have support for it. Even though
disproof or disconfirmation is logically sound in terms of testing hypotheses, falsifying a hypothesis
does not always mean that the hypothesis is false. There may be design problems in the study, as
already described. This even when a theory is falsified, we need to be cautious in our interpretation.
We do not want to discount a theory completely based on a single study.
Module 5: Defining, measuring, and manipulating variables
Defining variables
4
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