Readings for the seminars of National Thought in Europe 2020, from John McCormick to Thomas Mann. I would recommend to buy the Revision Guide National Thought in Europe (2020) because this will include the lectures and the book National Thought by Joep Leerssen.
Week 1:
John McCormick – The Idea of Europe
‘’Europe’’ is hard to point down as Europeans have had much more to divide them (different cultures,
languages, social divisions) than to unite them BUT since WWII Europeans started to unite
themselves with their common interests, goals, and values, collectively labelled Europeanism. Before
WWII parts of Europe were brought together for other reasons but only since WWII nationalism has
been tried to be pushed aside in the interests of regional cooperation. The idea of European unity
has already existed since the Early Middle Ages already as a means of defending Europe against itself
and outsiders, but it always remained just an ideal.
Throughout European history, one problem keeps cropping up: Europeans have often been better at
defining themselves in relation to outsiders than in relation to each other.
The word ‘’Europe’’ is thought to come from Greek mythology in which Europa was a Phoenician
princess seduced by Zeus. Greek authors began making a distinction between the various customs,
languages and values of Greeks, the inhabitants of Asia and the ‘’barbarians’’ of Europe (being
somewhere to the north). Maps drawn up by classical scholars showed the world divided into Asia,
Europe, and Africa, with the boundary between Europe and Asia marked by the River Don and the
Sea of Azov.
The Roman Empire brought much of Europe for the first time under what has been
described as a ‘’single cultural complex’’ as the Roman hegemony came with a common language
(Latin), a common legal and administrative system and a common religion (Christianity). BUT the
Roman Empire included areas apart from Europe and with the end of Roman hegemony (barbaric
invasions) it separated Europe culturally from its past.
The birth of Europe if often dated to the Early Middle Ages, which saw the emergence of a
common civilization with Christianity as its religion, Rome as its spiritual capital, and Latin as the
language of education. A stronger territorial and European identity was formed due to external
threats, expansion of Frankish power and a rift between the western and eastern branches of
Christianity. The term ‘’European’’ became widely used after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of
the Romans by Pope Leo III and hailed in poems as the king and father of Europe (his Empire was
Western Europe).
Only until the High Middle Ages (Medieval Europe regarded feudalism, declines of trade and
civilization) commerce revived, the external threat declined, and Europe became the aggressor with
Christian armies organising crusades Europe became more tightly defined.
By the 15th century, Europeans began voyages of discovery to Africa, the Americas and Asia
and there was a revival of classical works and a revolution in science (Newton, Copernicus) which
gave Europeans a new sense of confidence and place in the world. BUT in the meantime, the idea of
a united Christian Europe was abandoned (loyalty shifted away from the church) and state borders
strengthened.
The tumult of the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars encouraged several prominent
thinkers and philosophers (Kant, Rousseau) to explore the notion of European peace through unity,
mostly in a European federation. Others sought conquest was the best response. Napoleon made the
first attempt to achieve unity by force in modern times as he brought Western European countries
under his direct rule and he established a common body of law, a single currency etc.
The nineteenth century was marked by nationalism and prompted rivalry among European
states to build colonial empires. The dream of unification was still there but nationalism prevailed,
leading to the outbreak of WWI.
The horrors of the Great War led to the first practical forms of cooperation between the
smaller European states for economic cooperation. Other European leaders and politicians were
more convinced of the idea of a United States of Europe but due to WWII this did not occur yet.
, WWII made unsolved nationalist tensions between European states boil over which led to the
formation of enemies. The Cold War spooked Europe and regional cooperation was put into practice
due to the great threat of global rivalry between two superpowers and their nuclear weapons. Step 1
was the European Coal and Steal Community 1952. Economic integration was put into practice and
expanded after the 1950s.
In spite of the new definition given to the meaning of the terms Europe and European, many
differences remain: (1) Few European states are culturally homogenous (no desire for one
Euroculture), (2) the linguistic divisions of Europe are substantial (over 40 languages), (3) histories
that overlap give a sense of division rather than a common past, and (4) it is unclear where Europe
exactly begins and ends.
Europe, its personality, has been driven by two critical developments: (1) the Cold War division of
Europe has faded into the mists of history as Western and Eastern Europeans have buried their
different and their ties grew, and (2) enlargements of the EU has helped reduce the distinctions
between ‘’Europe’’ and the ‘’EU’’. Europeans are slowly transferring their loyalty from individual
states to a more broadly defined European identity besides their national identity.
Europe is a region of diversity with each state claiming to have a distinctive personality arising out of
a combination of history, culture, norms, and values. Nowadays though, it is clearer what the
commonalities are, such as common values and opinions on a broad array of issues.
Europeanism is usually understood to mean support for the process of European integration. Key
elements of this can be found in four areas (arguments which are supported by most of the
Europeans): (1) political values: democracy, rule of law, human rights; (2) economic values:
capitalism, supporters of the free market but most importantly the redistribution of wealth and
opportunity, and on the responsibility of government to maintain a levelled playing field; (3) social
values: decline of Church and demographic changes; and (4) attitudes towards international
relations: multilateralism, the use of smart power, and for using civilian means for dealing with
conflict.
Overall, Europeans have gained more commonalities over the past century and the differences have
faded more into the background.
Altiero Spinelli and Ernesto Rossi – For a Free and United Europe. A Draft Manifesto. (1941)
The nation has become a divine entity which only considers its own development and existence
without considering the damage it does to other nations. The absolute state sovereignty of national
states has led to the desire of each of them to dominate because they feel threatened by the power
of other states. The state wants to protect their citizens’ freedom and thus the state has turned into
a master of vassals bound into servitude and has all the powers it needs to achieve the maximum
war-efficiency.
The state is NOT the most effective means of organising collective life within the context of all human
society anymore. After WWII, we need the definitive abolition of the division of Europe into
national, sovereign states and NOT go back, after Hitler is defeated, to the old State institutions. The
authors argue the many problems which poison international life, such as the Balkan Question, can
all be solved in a European Federation and which will bring an end to the current anarchy. Also,
important dynasties must disappear as they are a serious obstacle to the rational organization of the
United States of Europe. The European Federation needs a lot of power and abilities, but each state
will retain the autonomy it needs for a plastic articulation and development of political life on their
own. Old conservative institutions, totalitarian regimes need to go.
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