Theme 6 – Ethnic identity and school adjustment
Vignette 1-3
• (Phinney & Ong, 2007 – Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity)
• (Phinney et al., 2001 – Ethnic identity, immigration, and well-being: An interactional
perspective)
• (Miller & Collette, 2019 – Multicultural Identity Development, theory and research)
• (Pahl & Way, 2006 – Longitudinal trajectories of ethnic identity among Urban Black and
Latino adolescents)
• (Berry et al., 2006 – Immigrant Youth: Acculturation, Identity, and Adaptation)
Vignette 4-6
• (Appel et al, 2015 – The influence of stereotype threat on immigrants: review and meta-
analysis)
• (Dimitrova et al., 2016 – Adjustment Outcomes of Immigrant Children and Youth in Europe)
• (Mok et al., 2017 – The interaction of vertical collectivism and stereotype activation on the
performance of Turkish-origin high school students)
• (Schachner, 2017 – Acculturation and School Adjustment of Immigrant Youth in Six European
Countries: Findings from the Programme for International Student Assessment)
VIGNETTE 1
How can the position of one’s culture influence how people see themselves (in terms of self-
esteem)?
What does assimilation, marginalization, integration and separation mean and how do they relate
to each other?
(Phinney & Ong, 2007 – Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity)
In this article, the authors examine the conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity as a
multidimensional, dynamic construct that develops over time through a process of exploration and
commitment. The authors discuss the components of ethnic identity that have been studied and the
theoretical background for a developmental model of ethnic identity.
Ethnic identity (EI) derives from a sense of peoplehood within a group, a culture, and a particular
setting. The achievement of a secure EI derives from experience, but experience is not sufficient to
produce it. Because one’s EI is constructed over time, the actions and choices of individuals are
essential to the process. EI is distinct in some ways from other group identities, such as racial
identity, but is also shares aspects of both personal and group identities.
Components of Ethnic Identity
Both theoretical and empirical evidence suggest that EI is a multifaceted construct that includes a
number of dimensions. These dimensions tend to be positively correlated, but to what extent
different dimensions of EI constitute a single overarching concept or distinct aspects that need to be
considered separately is unclear.
❖ EI is dynamic → it changes over time and context and must therefore be considered with
reference to its formation and variation.
❖ Much of the research on EI has been based on the study of group identity by social
psychologists. From this perspective, EI is an aspect of social identity → that part of an
individual’s self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his memberships of a social
group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that
membership.
Self-Categorization and Labelling
,Self-categorization: Identifying oneself as a member of a particular social grouping. Ashmore
considered this as a basic element of group identity.
- Measurement of EI must begin with verifying that the individuals being studied in fact self-
identify as members with a particular group.
- Individuals may use several different self-labels of categories, depending on the situation.
The label one uses is influenced to some extent by the context and by how one is seen by
others, so people cannot easily use labels that are at variance with their appearance.
- It is often necessary to categorize individuals by ethnic or racial group in order to study
differences across groups. The self-categorization can be obtained by both open-ended
questions and checklists.
- It is useful to ask individuals to report the background (ethnic, racial, or national) of both
parents. This allows for the identification of ethnically mixed individuals who may identify
with only one group, and it can also help clarify a respondent’s specific background.
Commitment and Attachment
Commitment: A strong attachment and a personal investment in a group. Attachment or affective
commitment was included by Ashmore et al. as a key component of group identity.
- The strength of commitment is not necessarily related to the content of the identity (the
specific attitudes or worldviews held by the individuals).
- According to developmental models, commitment alone does not define a confident,
mature, achieved identity → commitment may result from identifications with one’s parents
or other role models that have not been fully internalized by the individual. Such
commitments are called foreclosed; individuals who are foreclosed typically lack a clear
understanding of the meaning and implications of their commitment.
- In contrast, the secure and stable sense of self that defines an achieved identity reflects
knowledge of and an understanding about ethnicity that is based on a process of exploration.
Exploration
Exploration: Seeking information and experiences relevant to one’s ethnicity.
- It can involve a range of activities, such as reading and talking to people, learning cultural
practices, and attending cultural events. It is most common in adolescence, but is an ongoing
process that continue over time, possibly throughout life, depending on individual
experiences.
- Exploration is essential to the process, because without it, one’s commitment may be less
secure and more subject to change with new experiences.
Ethnic Behaviours
EI measures developed for specific groups have generally included behaviours such as speaking the
language, eating the food, and associating with members of one’s group. Knowledge and use of an
ethnic language has been considered to be a key aspect of EI.
- Behaviours are actions than can express an identity, and ethnic behaviours are generally
correlated with other aspects of EI. However, EI is an internal structure than can exist
without behaviour.
- Behaviours associated with one’s culture or ethnic group have been studied as an aspect of
acculturation, as distinct from EI.
Evaluation and Ingroup Attitudes
A strong sense of belonging to a group is assumed to include feeling comfortable with one’s ethnicity
and having positive feelings about one’s group membership.
- Private regard is used to refer to positive ingroup attitudes. Positive attitudes about one’s
group and oneself as a group member are important because members of minority and
, lower status groups are subject to discrimination that may lead to negative ingroup
attitudes.
- A developmental perspective suggests that the formation of an achieved EI based on learning
about one’s ethnic group and making a commitment to the group, leads to the rejection of
negative views based on stereotypes. An achieved ethnic identity implies that attitudes
about one’s group have been examined and evaluated independently and are not simply the
internalization.
- Evaluation of one’s group, either positive or negative, is a distinct and independent
component of EI. Thus, it is assumed that one can be committed to one’s group and yet have
negative feelings about the group and wish to belong to another group.
Values and Beliefs
The assessment of values and beliefs requires the use of content that differs across group. EG: Filial
piety in Asia. They are strongly correlated with commitment or a sense of belonging.
- Values are important indicators of one’s closeness to the group. However, they are limited in
that there is not always a group consensus on what values and beliefs should be included in a
scale. Even when there is agreement, such measures can be used only with particular groups
and cannot be used for comparisons across groups.
- In addition, values and beliefs may have different correlates from EI per se, that is, from a
committed sense of belonging to one’s group. Therefore, greater clarity can be obtained by
assessing separately one’s values and one’s sense of belonging.
Importance and Salience
The variation in the importance attributed to one’s EI across individuals and groups → with ethnic
minority group members attributing greater importance to their ethnicity than do members of the
dominant majority. There is also variation in the salience of EI over time. EG: EI salience. assessed on
a daily basis, was higher for those with a strong EI. Also, salience is associated with positive wellbeing
on a daily basis for those with high EI but not for those low in EI.
Ethnic Identity and National (or American) Identity
For ethnic identity to be fully understood, it is best considered in relation to another prominent
group identity of most minority group members, namely their identity as part of their national
culture. There is research evidence for the view that the two identities are independent and may be
positively or negatively correlated or uncorrelated.
4 distinct acculturation profiles:
❖ Integration profile: The largest number of immigrant youths, about a third. This was strong
associated with more positive adaptation.
❖ Ethnic profile: Almost a quarter of the sample, with a strong EI and weak NI.
❖ National profile: Less than a fifth of the sample, characterized by a weak EI and a strong NI.
❖ Diffuse profile: Low on both identities.
The results show that a strong EI does not necessarily imply a weak NI and vice versa. Rather, there
are varying patterns of relationship between the 2 identities across individuals. Furthermore, EI does
not operate alone; its implications vary, depending on individuals’ identification with their country of
residence.
Other research has shown that the relationship between EI and NI also differs across ethnic groups.
Summary: Both RI and EI involve a sense of belonging to a group and a process of learning about
one’s group. Both identities are associated with cultural behaviours and values, with attitudes
toward one’s own group, and with responses to discrimination. Both vary in importance and salience
across time and context. Nevertheless, RI and EI differ widely in the ways they have been defined and
studies.
, ❖ The study of RI has focused on responses to racism, and RI measures assess experiences
related to internalized racism.
❖ EI has been studied largely with reference to one’s sense of belonging to an ethnic group → a
group defined by one’s cultural heritage, including values, traditions, and often language.
❖ RI research has been carried out predominantly in Black and, to a lesser extent, White
samples and typically with college students, whereas EI research has generally been carried
out with adolescents and college students from a variety of ethnic and racial groups.
The Development of Ethnic Identity
It has its roots in the ego identity model of Erik Erikson. For him, identity refers to a subjective
feeling of sameness and continuity that provides individuals with a stable sense of self and serves as
a guide to choices in key areas of one’s life.
- It’s not automatic → it develops over time, beginning in childhood, through a process of
reflection and observation that is particularly salient during adolescence and young
adulthood but may continue through adulthood and is expected to lead to a resolution or an
achieved identity.
- An achieved identity combines childhood identifications, individual interests and talents, and
opportunities afforded by the context in a unified self-structure. It is associated with
numerous indicators of psychological well-being. Not all individuals achieve this, and the
failure to do so results in role confusion and the inability to make progress toward
meaningful commitments.
- (Miller) The process of achieving a stable identity is the most critical task of adolescence and
suggested that individuals experience an identity crisis during adolescence. Successful
resolution is dependent upon the extent to which individuals balance the various self‐images
they experience with the social roles that are available to them.
- (Miller) Situational changes such as immigration to a new country could cause an imbalance
between the person and the cultural context in which they formed their identity → those
with strong identities are not likely to experience a renewed identity crisis, but noted that
even those with a strong sense of who they are will still respond to changes in cultural
context.
The empirical study of personal identity was advanced by James Marcia, who conceptualized identity
formation as involving 2 processes; exploration of identity issues and commitment in relevant
identity domains. These 2 processes can be assessed independently, and they can be used together
to define 4 identity statuses:
❖ Identity diffusion: Having engaged in neither process.
❖ Identity foreclosure: Made commitment without having explored.
❖ Moratorium period: Exploring without having made a commitment.
❖ Achieved identity: Explored key identity issues and commitments.
Like a personal identity, and EI refers to a sense of self, but it differs in that it involves a shared sense
of identity with others who belong to the same ethnic group. Also, EI is an important contributor to
an individual’s well-being → individuals derive positive self-attitudes from belonging to groups that
are meaningful to them.
- EI begins in a rudimentary form in childhood. It is assumed to undergo major developmental
change in adolescence and young adulthood, through the joint processes of exploration and
commitment → involving a firm commitment to one’s ethnicity based on an exploration that
has led to a clear understanding of ethnicity.
- By adulthood, most people have acquired a relatively stable and secure sense of themselves
as ethnic group members, that is, an achieved EI; but there can be continued exploration of
identity issues throughout adulthood.
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