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Summary Justesen & Mik-MeyerChapter 1: Theoretical perspectives and qualitative methodology
Introduction
In terms of theory, the concept of the perspective can be used to encapsulate the various fundamental
ontological and epistemological assumptions and conceptual interest upon which the student could base her
work.
This book concentrates on three perspectives, which we call realism, phenomenology and constructivism.
The theoretical perspective has crucial consequences for the practical implementation of a study at all stages.
The theoretical perspective is a designation for the fundamental understanding of the world and the basic view
of knowledge upon which a theory is based.
With the realism perspective, they adopt a perspective that is based on a fundamental assumption that reality
exist in a specific and, in principle, unambiguous manner “out there”” independently of our knowledge of it.
From this angle, the point of research is to capture the phenomena that interests us and to describe them as
accurately, clearly and neutrally as possible.
The phenomenology perspective focuses on subjective actions, especially with regard to the meaning that
subjective actors attach to different actions. From this perspective, the researcher’s objective is not to identify
and explain causal relationships, but to interpret, understand and typify subjective universes of meaning.
The constructivism perspective assumes that our reality is continuously constructed through social processes.
From this perspective, the job of the student is usually to attempt to capture the complexity that characterizes
the becoming of the phenomenon that interests her, and to describe as many facets as possible of that
complexity and ambiguity.
Ontology and epistemology
Ontology is the study of the nature of being. In brief, it refers to the question of what we perceive to be the
nature of the world. It is about how we view the part of the world that we have made the object of our study.
Epistemology is the theory of knowledge. While ontology is about the part of reality that we make the object
of our study, epistemology is concerned with our ability to attain knowledge of this subject area.
The realist perspective assumes that there is a single reality and that it exists in a certain form, independently
of our language and knowledge in this sense, it is objective.
It might be said that realism operates on the basis of an essentialist and objectivist ontology.
Phenomenologists assume that there are multiple realities.
Like the phenomenologists, constructivists are critical of the notion that there is a single, independent, unique
reality, but also reject the idea that reality – whether single or plural – has an inherent essence or a stable
coherent meaningfulness.
The object of study is never looked at independently of social processes and its specific context.
Rather, it is constructed constantly, e.g. through the way that people talk about the world.
Thus, constructivists maintain that constructed reality is both ambiguous and unstable.
,Both phenomenology and constructivism consider both context and subjectivity to be conditions of the study
process that neither can nor should be ignored.
Quantitative and qualitative methodology
Quantitative methods generate material that consists of sub-elements that can be quantified and processed
using various kinds of calculations, typically of statistical nature.
The student typically adopts qualitative methods in order to provide a statistically based description – a
snapshot of certain social conditions at a given moment – or an explanation of how certain factors are
interrelated.
The results of a quantitative method can be generalized in order to say something about other, similar
situations.
Quantitative studies presuppose that the phenomena we wish to study can be defined and delineated
relatively unambiguous, and as such can be counted and presented in charts, tables, etc. This assumption
means that many quantitative studies are often – implicitly or explicitly – based on a realist perspective.
Denzin and Lincoln (2000): “The word qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on
processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured (if measured at all) in terms of
quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency”.
Qualitative studies use methods that are well suited to describe phenomena in context and, against
that background, provide an interpretation that leads to a greater understanding of the phenomenon.
Qualitative studies will always, to a greater (constructivism) or lesser (realism) extent take into account the
context that forms the framework for the phenomenon being studied.
In studies where the student seeks to both an explanation for particular interrelationships and an
understanding of a phenomenon, it is not uncommon to combine quantitative and qualitative methods.
In social research, the vast majority of quantitative studies are, to some extent, accompanies by qualitative
studies. Conversely, qualitative studies can stem from a quantitative questionnaire-based study that provides
insight into more general patterns, and as much may indicate what the student should focus on in the
qualitative study.
A realist perspective
There is an objective world “out there”, i.e. independent of the researcher or the student who sets out to study
certain aspects of it.
The objective of the researcher working from a realist perspective is – as neutrally and objectively as possible –
to describe and provide explanations for the phenomena and conditions that she is studying.
Objectivity, defined as the attainment of knowledge that reflects an objective reality, remains an ideal in the
realist perspective.
Researchers working from a realist perspective, however, do not think that it is possible, in practice, to
generate analyses that fully reflect the reality they wish to describe.
Realism in social research typically seeks to reveal the social structures in the world (and their underlying
mechanisms) that govern human actions. The assumption is that our knowledge of social reality interacts with
the underlying structures in a way that influences our actions.
The critical-realist-inspired researcher has a dual focus: the actors involved (and their attitudes to and
descriptions of the social world), and the underlying mechanisms and structures of which they are not
necessarily conscious, but which nevertheless appear to regulate their actions. Thus, the researcher’s task is to
reveal how the underlying mechanisms and structures affect the level that the researcher is able to register.
, Structure of the project based on critical realism:
1. Formulating the research question
2. The underlying object’s ontology
3. Epistemological discussion of possible theories (hypothesis formulation)
4. Realist analysis method (based on “open” theories and empirical verification/falsification)
5. Conditional conclusions.
It is important to emphasize that researchers are only able to observe the factual, empirical level, while
realism’s assumption is that what we see and hear is regulated by structural factors that are not readily
accessible to us (or to the actors studied). The more our object is open to observation – the more we can see
and hear – the more empirically based knowledge we are able to derive.
It is through studies of how context interacts with the object concerned that we are able to achieve knowledge
of that object that is as precise and correct as possible.
Burr (1998): discussions of what constitutes reality are based on the following three dimensions:
1. “Truth” what do we understand by the concept of true in relation to false?
2. “Materiality” what do we understand by the concept of materiality in relation to illusion?
3. “Essence” what do we understand by the concept of essence in relation to construction?
A phenomenological perspective
In brief, phenomenology represents a break with the ideal of objectivity that is an integral part of the realist
perspective.
All variants of phenomenology maintain that subjectivity and interpretation play a crucial role on both the
ontological and epistemological levels. This means inter alia that realism’s sharp distinction between ontology
and epistemology becomes somewhat blurred, as there is no access to reality outside of our knowledge or
interpretation of it.
Subjectivity is accorded such fundamental importance in the phenomenological perspective precisely because
the very definition of a phenomenon presupposes that there must necessarily someone – a subject – for whom
the phenomenon comes into view. In other words, there has to be a subject who experiences the
phenomenon, otherwise there would be no phenomenon.
What is interesting in this context is that the same object can appear in many different ways.
A key concept in phenomenology is the concept of the life-world which refers to the specific, everyday world
that we line in and tend to take for granted.
The life-world is specific in the sense that it is embodied spatially and temporarily. In other words, there is a
specific temporal and spatial horizon within which phenomena have a special meaning for those who perceive
and experience the world. However, this does not mean that we each have our own unique, private
experience, and that meaning is a radically individual matter.
The life-world is a collective world in which we find ourselves; it is, the world into which we are thrown. The
life-world is a social, cultural and historical context that forms a special horizon of meaning for the individual.
Phenomenology is about understanding social phenomena from the actors’ own perspectives and describing
the world as it is experiences by the interviewees. This is based on the assumption that the important reality is
the one that people experience.
In other words, it is relevant to shed light upon the subjective experience per se, and it is less interesting
whether it is “true” in an objective sense or what the causes are of this particular experience of a phenomenon.
Meaning is another key concept that is closely related to the concepts of subjectivity and the life-world.
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